7 Some time later the brook dried up because there had been no rain in the land. 8 Then the word of the Lord came to him: 9 "Go at once to Zarephath of Sidon and stay there. I have commanded a widow in that place to supply you with food." 10 So he went to Zarephath. When he came to the town gate, a widow was there gathering sticks. He called to her and asked, "Would you bring me a little water in a jar so I may have a drink?" 11 As she was going to get it, he called, "And bring me, please, a piece of bread."
12 "As surely as the Lord your God lives," she replied, "I don't have any bread-only a handful of flour in a jar and a little oil in a jug. I am gathering a few sticks to take home and make a meal for myself and my son, that we may eat it-and die."
13 Elijah said to her, "Don't be afraid. Go home and do as you have said. But first make a small cake of bread for me from what you have and bring it to me, and then make something for yourself and your son. 14 For this is what the Lord , the God of Israel, says: 'The jar of flour will not be used up and the jug of oil will not run dry until the day the Lord gives rain on the land.' "
15 She went away and did as Elijah had told her. So there was food every day for Elijah and for the woman and her family. 16 For the jar of flour was not used up and the jug of oil did not run dry, in keeping with the word of the Lord spoken by Elijah.
17 Some time later the son of the woman who owned the house became ill. He grew worse and worse, and finally stopped breathing. 18 She said to Elijah, "What do you have against me, man of God? Did you come to remind me of my sin and kill my son?"
19 "Give me your son," Elijah replied. He took him from her arms, carried him to the upper room where he was staying, and laid him on his bed. 20 Then he cried out to the Lord , "O Lord my God, have you brought tragedy also upon this widow I am staying with, by causing her son to die?" 21 Then he stretched himself out on the boy three times and cried to the Lord, "O Lord my God, let this boy's life return to him!"
22 The Lord heard Elijah's cry, and the boy's life returned to him, and he lived. 23 Elijah picked up the child and carried him down from the room into the house. He gave him to his mother and said, "Look, your son is alive!"
24 Then the woman said to Elijah, "Now I know that you are a man of God and that the word of the Lord from your mouth is the truth."
The Sinner And The Sinned Against
1 Kings 17:1-24
Sermon
by Stephen P. McCutchan
Each of us experiences the world as both sinner and the sinned against. When we act in a way or even refuse to work against a condition that violates our relationship with God, other people, or the natural world, we are sinners. When we experience the painful result of a sinful world, whether it be a disease, poverty, a tragic accident, prejudice, or the violence of war or crime, we are the sinned against. Most often we are both sinners and the sinned against. At different times we are more one than the other.
When we are the sinner, the gospel is clear that we must repent or turn our lives around and stop sinning. The story of Elijah is helpful in knowing how to respond when we are the sinned against.
The first thing that you note in the story is that God cares for the faithful. When Elijah told Ahab of the coming drought he, too, would be subject to those conditions. It was God who directed him to go to the Wadi Cherith, which was east of the Jordan, and hide himself. There he found water to drink and the ravens fed him. It is interesting that the term for ravens can mean Arabs. We are either experiencing God's love through a miracle of animal behavior or through the power of God's love to heal the human barriers that separate us.
The next thing we learn from the story is that God's care does not mean we are free from danger and suffering. Even though at first he was fed by the ravens or Arabs and had water to drink at the Wadi Cherith, eventually that resource also dried up and Elijah was faced with the problem of survival. Not only that, but he faced the very real danger of the armies of Ahab who were searching for him.
God sent him to a foreign land. Elijah fled to Phoenician territory, outside the territory of the faithful. It raises the question for us of when God's people, Jewish or Christian, become so faithless that we must flee from them for protection.
When God sent Elijah to Zarephath, foreign territory, he made clear that God was already at work preparing for his care. God's actions were not restricted to the faith community or the territory where they were active. It is also clear that God's ministry comes to us from the least expected and most unlikely sources. The person to whom Elijah was to go was a widow with a small child. Elijah was told that this foreign widow would feed him.
The conventional wisdom is that if you need help go to the strong, the resourceful, or the affluent. God did not send Elijah to an Israelite who could at least offer national and communal loyalty. God did not send him to a member of the community of faith who could offer him the resources of faith. God did not send him to a rich person who could offer material resources. God did not send him to someone who was self-sufficient and could teach him survival skills and strength. God did not even send him to one who was aware of God's calling. At least then that person could offer a witness of reassurance. God sent Elijah to a poverty-stricken widow who could not even provide for herself and her son. God sent Elijah to the weak rather than the strong.
That leads to the fourth lesson that we learn from the story. God's ministry does not always come from people who are aware that they have something to offer. When Elijah asked the widow for help, her response was that she had nothing to give. "As the Lord your God lives, I have nothing baked, only a handful of meal in a jar, and a little oil in a jug; I am now gathering a couple of sticks, so that I may go home and prepare it for myself and my son, that we may eat, and die" (v. 12). The widow of Zarephath believed that her condition robbed her of having anything to offer. She was only aware that she was one of the sinned against.
Faith, in the form of Elijah, approached the widow, not as a sinner who needed to repent but as one who was sinned against. She had been sinned against by the prejudice in a society that consigned women who had lost their husbands to the forgotten of the world. She had been sinned against by poverty because she had no earning power and was slowly descending to the point of starvation. She had been beaten down in the world, and she was prepared to die.
When faith approaches the sinned against in us, those times in our lives when fate has dealt us a cruel blow, we are called upon to recognize that we are of value. Faith brings us the strength and resources to resist the evil that threatens us.
Faith, in the form of Elijah, gave the widow a renewed awareness of her own value. Elijah treated her as someone who had something to offer. He encouraged her to resist the evil that threatened to consume her and her son.
Do not be afraid; go and do as you have said; but first make me a little cake of it and bring it to me, and afterward make something for yourself and your son; For thus says the Lord the God of Israel; "The jar of meal will not be emptied and the jug of oil will not fail until the day that the Lord sends rain on the earth." — 1 Kings 17:13-14
His message was that she should not give in to the power of death. Reach out to me, he said by his request, and God will not forget you.
The columnist George Will once wrote a column called "Disposable Relationships" in which he lamented how willing we are to dispose of relationships that seem to offer the possibility of unpleasantness — whether it is a rocky marriage or a handicapped child. As counterintuitive as it is, how often have we heard parents of handicapped children, which the world often sees as weaker, report what a blessing that child has been to their family — the weaker feeding the stronger.
Does not the Bible repeat this theme time and again? If you think you are too old or too young, too weak, too sick, too weary, too inarticulate, too pressed down by the woes of the world or the burdens of your own life to experience the truth of God, go first not to the wise, the articulate, the self-sufficient, but rather make a renewed commitment to reach out to the weaker, the sicker, the more oppressed. Regardless of whether their condition is because of the structure of society or because of some tragedy or disease, they are the sinned against of the world. Reach out to the sinned against; treat them with value; encourage them to resist that which is beating them down; offer to share with them what strength you have, and you, too, will be fed. Amen.
CSS Publishing Company, Inc., Sermons on the First Readings, by Stephen P. McCutchan
In 1 Kings 17 through 2 Kings 18, God Sends Prophets to Confront the Corrupt Monarchy. The fascinating stories about the two prophets Elijah and Elisha (1Kings 17–19) come as a major interruption in the flow of 1–2Kings, which has been focusing on the reign of various kings. Specifically, the stories of Elijah and Elisha interrupt the reign of Ahab, the worst of all the kings. The theology for us coming out of these stories now shifts to two levels. One level relates to the big, national story of Israel and continues to deal with the apostasy of the king and the nation. The other level is a personal one, as we now encounter numerous stories about individuals and their faith in God, in contrast to the national rejection of God and his covenant.
Under Ahab, the northern kingdom of Israel be…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
7 Some time later the brook dried up because there had been no rain in the land. 8 Then the word of the Lord came to him: 9 "Go at once to Zarephath of Sidon and stay there. I have commanded a widow in that place to supply you with food." 10 So he went to Zarephath. When he came to the town gate, a widow was there gathering sticks. He called to her and asked, "Would you bring me a little water in a jar so I may have a drink?" 11 As she was going to get it, he called, "And bring me, please, a piece of bread."
12 "As surely as the Lord your God lives," she replied, "I don't have any bread-only a handful of flour in a jar and a little oil in a jug. I am gathering a few sticks to take home and make a meal for myself and my son, that we may eat it-and die."
13 Elijah said to her, "Don't be afraid. Go home and do as you have said. But first make a small cake of bread for me from what you have and bring it to me, and then make something for yourself and your son. 14 For this is what the Lord , the God of Israel, says: 'The jar of flour will not be used up and the jug of oil will not run dry until the day the Lord gives rain on the land.' "
15 She went away and did as Elijah had told her. So there was food every day for Elijah and for the woman and her family. 16 For the jar of flour was not used up and the jug of oil did not run dry, in keeping with the word of the Lord spoken by Elijah.
17 Some time later the son of the woman who owned the house became ill. He grew worse and worse, and finally stopped breathing. 18 She said to Elijah, "What do you have against me, man of God? Did you come to remind me of my sin and kill my son?"
19 "Give me your son," Elijah replied. He took him from her arms, carried him to the upper room where he was staying, and laid him on his bed. 20 Then he cried out to the Lord , "O Lord my God, have you brought tragedy also upon this widow I am staying with, by causing her son to die?" 21 Then he stretched himself out on the boy three times and cried to the Lord, "O Lord my God, let this boy's life return to him!"
22 The Lord heard Elijah's cry, and the boy's life returned to him, and he lived. 23 Elijah picked up the child and carried him down from the room into the house. He gave him to his mother and said, "Look, your son is alive!"
24 Then the woman said to Elijah, "Now I know that you are a man of God and that the word of the Lord from your mouth is the truth."
When the water supply of Cutoff Creek is cut off, it creates an opportunity for a shift in spatial setting, and Elijah’s sojourn to the Sidonian widow dovetails with a number of broader themes in the story (17:7–16). The widow, vulnerable in the present, acquainted with grief and loss in the past, is gathering sticks for a last supper amid arid sterility. But she submits to the (counterintuitive) prophetic word and experiences life, as a substitute for death. Elijah’s journey deep into Sidonian territory demonstrates God’s sustaining power in a situation akin to “exile,” and the word of the Lord spoken in a distant land transfuses hope in perilous times. In fact, we see in this episode the power of God even beyond the borders of Israel, indeed, in the very backyard of Jezebel! Not only does Jezebel’s god(dess) lack efficacy, but there is some humor here: God hides his prophet deep in the queen’s territory (cf. Luke 4:25–26).
Such themes, however, are threatened when the widow’s son takes ill (17:17–24). Yet the son’s restoration is accomplished through prophetic mediation and thus encourages a rejection of the royal paradigm espoused by Ahab and Jezebel: what rulers (of any nation) are ultimately helpless to give, the prophetic word achieves. In this scene the reader hears the testimony of a non-Israelite about the GodofIsrael and his chosen prophet. It is the God of Israelwho sends Elijah, just as it is the God of Israel who sends rain, who delivers from death, and whose word transcends any other authority. Elijah’s declaration to the widow (“your son lives” [RSV]) echoes his earlier word to Ahab (“as the Lord lives”) and underscores the theme of the God of life that continues throughout this narrative stretch.
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Elijah and the Drought: We have lacked a prophet to address the house of Omri, but now a prophet bursts onto the scene with a vengeance. His announcement of doom on this house will, however, be delayed until 1 Kings 21:21–24. His first task is to tackle the problem of the Baal-worship that Ahab has introduced into Israel (16:31–32), so as to demonstrate beyond all doubt that Baal is no more a god in any real sense than Jeroboam’s calves are. Chapter 17 provides the context in which the climactic demonstration of this truth will take place (18:16–40): the divinely ordained drought of 17:1. It also prepares us for the demonstration by showing us that it is the LORD, and not Baal (nor any other “god”), who controls both life and death, both fertility and infertility. It is thus the LORD, and not any other, who is God—as Elijah’s name (Hb. ʾēlîyāhû, “the LORD is God”) itself proclaims.
17:1–6 In Canaanite religion it was Baal who had authority over the rain. Its absence meant the absence of Baal, who must periodically submit to the god Mot (death), only to be revived at a later date and once again water the earth. It is this polytheistic view of reality that Elijah now challenges. He worships a single God who lives (cf. the oath taken in the name of the living God also in 1 Kgs. 1:29; 2:24; 18:10; 22:14; etc.) and yet, while living, can deny both dew and rain to the land. It is the LORD, and not Baal, who brings fertility; it is the LORD’s presence in judgment that leads to infertility, rather than his absence in death (cf. the echoes of these verses in Rev. 11:6; 12:6). That he is indeed the living and ever-present God who is sovereign over creation is, in fact, revealed in the story that follows in which he is able to sustain and even to restore life in the midst of death. We receive our first indication of this in verses 2–6. Elijah leaves Ahab’s presence to hide in an inhospitable area east of the Jordan where, we deduce, there is no normal food supply. God has saved him from Ahab and Jezebel, it is implied (v. 3, cf. 18:4; 19:1–2), but under normal circ*mstances he will now die of hunger. God is, however, able to provide for him; God controls not just the rain but the whole natural order, including the ravens (v. 4). God is ever present to speak the word (v. 2)—and the word brings life. And so, as the Israelites had once been the beneficiaries of God’s provision of bread and meat in the wilderness (Exod. 16, esp. vv. 8, 12–13), now Elijah also eats bread and meat—even more liberally than they (each sort of food twice a day).
17:7–16 The theme of miraculous provision in the midst of life-threatening circ*mstances is developed further. The drought takes effect and the brook dries up; Elijah must move on. But that “must” is far from indicating constraint on God. The reader of Exodus knows very well that the LORD can just as easily provide water by miraculous means as bread and meat (Exod. 17:1–7). The “must” is simply divine imperative. God has decided to display power in a different way—in what 1 Kings 16:31 implies is the very heartland of the worship of Baal, the region of Sidon. Here is a region, some might have thought, over which Israel’s God could have no authority. It is nonetheless an area badly affected by the drought announced in 17:1 (cf. v. 12). The LORD can bring drought to all and can disarm death and sustain life in even this area, as well as in Israel. So Elijah is sent to Zarephath of Sidon, to meet a widow (v. 9) whom God has commanded, as he had previously “ordered” the ravens, to supply Elijah with food. Her situation seems hopeless. The LORD lives (v. 12)—the woman is ready to acknowledge that; but she is preparing to die, for his living makes no practical difference to hers. How, then, can she provide for Elijah? Yet the word of the LORD has come to pass once already (vv. 2–4), against all natural odds, and Elijah is certainly prepared to trust it a second time (vv. 8–9). He persuades the woman to take a mighty step of faith to join him. Against all parental instinct, she is to feed him first (v. 13), before her son. She does so (v. 15), and she and her son are blessed (cf. Matt. 10:41) as she discovers that Elijah’s God is alive and gives life. There was food every day for Elijah and for the woman and her family.
17:17–24 The threat of death has twice been overcome. The LORD has proved to be sovereign over all the world, controlling both life and death. Elijah and the widow seem convinced; for when death does eventually catch up with the family, both know that it must be the LORD’s doing. The woman speaks of it obliquely, blaming God’s prophet for reminding God of her sin (v. 18; cf. the additional note). Elijah, on the other hand, speaks directly of the LORD’s action against the family (causing her son to die, v. 20). The essential difference is that the woman apparently thinks this the end of the matter (v. 18), while Elijah is not content to let it rest (vv. 19ff.). Here is the ultimate test of the LORD’s authority. It is one thing to rescue people from the jaws of death, but can he do anything when death has clamped tight its jaws and swallowed the victim up? He can act across the border from Israel in Sidon, but is there a “border” that he ultimately cannot cross, a kingdom in which he has no power? When faced by “Mot,” must the LORD, like Baal, bow the knee? Elijah knows the answer, even if the woman does not, and so he prays and the boy’s life is restored (v. 22). Even the underworld is not a place from which the LORD can be barred (Ps. 139:7–12). Life can storm even death’s strongest towers and rescue those imprisoned there (cf. the further echoes of the story in Luke 7:11–17; Acts 9:32–43; 20:7–12; Heb. 11:35).
In a way the story has a strange ending. The widow’s response to this raising of her son from the dead is faith—but faith that is focused upon Elijah rather than upon God himself. It is Elijah’s credentials as a man of God (v. 24) that have been validated by the miracle, rather than God’s ability to act. Was there reason to doubt these credentials? She had called Elijah man of God already (v. 18), and he had already proved himself to her as one who speaks the word of the LORD truly (vv. 14–16, 24). In one sense she already believed it, but now that she has seen death transformed into life, she knows. She is the first to know what will soon be public knowledge when Elijah’s credentials are put to the test in confrontation with hundreds of others who claim to be “prophets” of a living god, but who are found wanting.
Additional Notes
17:9 Go . . . to Zarephath: The incident is referred to by Jesus in Luke 4:25–26. Like Elijah, he implies, he has been sent, not (only) to Jews, but to Gentiles. This theme of Jesus and the Gentiles is also picked up, with echoes of 1 Kgs. 17 still sounding, in Matt. 15:21–28 and Mark 7:24–30 (the healing of the daughter of a Canaanite/Phoenician woman).
I have commanded a widow: The widow shows no awareness of having been directly “commanded” by God, and we are perhaps to understand the verb here and in v. 4 (Hb. ṣwh) in a more indirectly causative way (“I have ordained that . . .”).
17:18 To remind me of my sin and kill my son: The Hb. is lit. “to bring to remembrance my sin and kill my son.” In the context a causative connection between sin and death is probably in view: “to bring my sin to God’s notice and cause my son to die.” Just by being there, Elijah has focused God’s attention on the household in an unhelpful way (cf. Mark 1:24; Luke 4:34). Elijah picks up the exact wording of the second part of the complaint (“causing her son to die”) in his prayer, while refraining from any comment on the question of the cause of the tragedy. He is more interested in action than in speculation (cf. John 9:1–12).
17:21 He stretched himself out on the boy: The purpose of the action is not made clear. What is certain is that it is the prayer that is the crucial element in the whole scene (“he cried to the LORD . . . the LORD heard Elijah’s cry,” v. 22).
Understanding the Bible Commentary Series by Iain W. Provan, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
A surface to recline on for the purpose of sleep, convalescence, contemplation, and sexual activity. Construction ranged from a portable straw mat (Mark 6:55; Acts 9:34) to raised frames crafted of wood, metal, or stone inlaid with precious metals and jewels (Deut. 3:11; Amos 6:4) and topped with luxurious coverings (Prov. 7:16, 17; 31:22). The mats of poor people might be rolled up and stowed away during the day to save space when they slept in a common room (Luke 11:7). The rich reclined on permanent structures in rooms designated for sleeping (Exod. 8:3; 2Kings 6:12), but people of more modest means also had bedrooms (2Kings 4:10).
The most commonly cited use of a bed is not for sleeping (Ps. 132:3; Luke 11:7) but for convalescing (Gen. 48:2; Exod. 21:18; 2Sam. 13:5; Ps. 41:3; Matt. 8:14; Acts 28:8) or dying (Gen. 49:33; 2Kings 1:4, 6, 16). Elijah restores life to a boy after placing him on a bed (1Kings 17:19; cf. Elisha in 2Kings 4:21, 34, 35). Murder is attempted (1Sam. 19:13, 15, 16) or accomplished (2Sam. 4:7, 11; 2Chron. 24:25) in bed.
The bed is for sexual activity, whether honorable (Song 1:16; Heb. 13:4) or not (Gen. 39:7, 10, 12; 49:4; 2Sam. 13:11). People mope and mourn on beds (1Kings 21:4; Ps. 6:6; Song 3:1; Hos. 7:14), loaf (Prov. 26:14), plot evil (Ps. 36:4; Mic. 2:1), meditate and rejoice (Pss. 4:4; 63:6; 149:5), and experience visions (Dan. 2:28; 4:5; 7:1). The bed is a metaphor for the grave (Job 7:13; 17:13; Ezek. 32:25).
Generally made of grain, this staple of foods has been known to be in existence since prehistoric days, being mentioned in the oldest literatures of humanity. Though usually made of wheat, it can be made of any grain and also some kinds of beans or lentils.
To make bread, grain must be ground into flour, mixed with salt and water, kneaded into a dough, and baked. Most breads included a leaven to add substance. As a food staple, it became a symbol of hospitality (Neh. 13:12; Matt. 14:15–21) and community as people ate together (Acts 2:42). Bread was considered a gift from God, so it was treated with special deference. Unleavened bread was required during Passover feasts and in most occasions related to the worship of God. The “bread of the Presence” (KJV: “shewbread”), representing the twelve tribes of Israel in the temple, was made of unleavened bread (Exod. 25:30) with special flour and was carefully eaten by the priests.
Jesus used bread in the Lord’s Prayer to represent asking God to meet our basic needs (Matt. 5:11), and he called himself the “bread of life” to show that he is the one who “gives life to the world,” our ultimate sustenance (John 6:33–35). During this exchange with the Jews about the bread of life, Jesus foreshadows what takes place at the Last Supper with his disciples, suggesting that believers must “eat [his] flesh” (represented by bread) and “drink [his] blood” (represented by wine) (John 6:53–59; cf. Luke 22:19). Additionally, bread was used symbolically to represent those things that were present in daily life (Pss. 127:2; 80:5; Prov. 4:17; 20:17).
In the OT, the Hebrew words ruakh (“breath, spirit”) and neshamah (“blast, spirit”) are the standard terms, even collectively translated “wind.” Constructively, these terms reflect the vibrant relationship between God and humankind. However, God’s “breath” can also be an agent of judgment. So “breath/wind” is the invasive power of God—proof of his supremacy—capable of disruption or transformation of human life.
It is in human creation that God’s breath is given one of its most dynamic illustrations. Formed of “dust,” the human being must be enlivened by the Creator’s breath. In the OT, human flesh remains dormant and helplessly passive until God breathes; then a living human being is animated (Gen. 2:7; 6:17; cf. Pss. 33:6; 104:29).
“Breath/wind” is also a powerful force in God’s anger, when a “blast of breath from his nostrils” can undo and destroy (2Sam. 22:16). Similarly, a “strong east wind” rolls back the Red Sea for the Israelites’ crossing (Exod. 14:21), but the very same force is the undoing of Pharaoh’s army, which was destroyed as God, Israel’s warrior, “blew” with his “breath” (Exod. 15:10).
Not surprisingly, themes combining breath, wind, and spirit are also used to describe new creation (Ezek. 37:9). The life-generating force of the ruakh/spirit emerges in the NT as the Holy Spirit, manifested in wind, a breath, or Spirit (Gk. pneuma). At Pentecost “a violent wind came from heaven,” enacting another creation (Acts 2:2). John clearly symbolizes Jesus’ “breathing” on the disciples (John 20:22). Not only does this illustrate John’s theology of being born “from above” (3:3 NRSV), but also “he breathed” reenacts the enlivening of Gen. 2:7. The two creations are connected: God’s enlivening in Gen. 2:7 and Jesus’ creation of eternal life following his own resurrection.
Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).
Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).
For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).
The chief priest of Israel at the tabernacle at Shiloh toward the end of the period of judges (1Sam. 1:14:22). He is described as both physically and spiritually flabby. He is not evil, just spiritually undiscerning. Also, he fails to discipline his two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, who are wicked. He ends badly when his sons, who are leading the army against the Philistines, are defeated and killed. When he gets the news, Eli falls off a log and breaks his neck. Even so, his descendants continue as priests until the time of David. At that time, though, the prophetic announcement comes to fulfillment, and the priesthood passes from his descendant Abiathar and goes to Zadok (1Kings 2:27, 35).
A prophet raised up by God during the reign of Ahab of Israel (ninth century BC) in order to counter fast-rising idolatry fueled by the king and his foreign-born wife, Jezebel.
False worship at this time focused on Baal, a major Canaanite deity who was the god of fertility, having power over dew, rain, lightning, and thunder. Thus, as people turned to Baal for these life-giving forces, God shut up the heavens so there would be no rain in Israel (1Kings 17:1). God also at this time sent Elijah the Tishbite to confront the king.
Through the performance of miraculous acts, Elijah demonstrated that God was with him. The first such act was multiplying the food supplies of a widow who provided him with food. Even more dramatically, he prayed for the woman’s son when the child died, and the dead boy began to breathe again (1Kings 17:1724).
Elijah’s most dramatic moment came when he confronted Ahab and his many Baal prophets on Mount Carmel (1Kings 18). Yahweh fought Baal on the latter’s terms. The object was whether Yahweh or Baal could throw fire from heaven to light the altar fire. Baal was purportedly a specialist at throwing fire (lightning), and his prophets went first. However, because Baal did not really exist, they failed. When Yahweh’s turn came, Elijah increased the stakes by pouring water on the wood. Yahweh, the one true God, threw fire from heaven, which burned the sacrifice, wood, stones, and dirt, and even dried up the water. Soon thereafter, God opened up the skies so that it rained again. Even so, Ahab and then his son Ahaziah (2Kings 1) continued to worship Baal.
Elijah was a devoted servant of Yahweh. Before Elijah passed from this life, God introduced him to his successor, Elisha. When the end came, he did not die but rather was caught up to heaven (2Kings 2:1–18)—only the second person reported to leave this life without dying (cf. Enoch in Gen. 5:21–24).
Toward the end of the OT period, the prophet Malachi announced the coming day of the Lord (Mal. 4:5–6). As a precursor to that day, God would send the prophet Elijah as a forerunner. Some people thought that Jesus was Elijah (Matt. 16:14; Mark 6:15; 8:28; Luke 9:8, 19), but Jesus is the one who ushers in the kingdom of God. John the Baptist was his forerunner, and so it was he who is rightly associated with Elijah (Matt. 11:13–14). Indeed, his wilderness lifestyle and ministry echoed those of Elijah. At the Mount of Transfiguration, Elijah appeared to Jesus along with Moses; these two wilderness figures represented the prophets and the law (Matt. 17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36).
People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.
Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.
The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.
Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.
Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).
Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.
Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.
Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.
Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).
The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.
A controlled point of entry into an otherwise enclosed area such as a city (Gen. 34:24; Ps. 122:2; Acts 9:24), camp (Exod. 32:2627), tabernacle court (Exod. 35:17), palace (2Kings 11:19), temple area (Jer. 36:10; Ezek. 40), prison (Acts 12:10), or house (Acts 10:17).
In the OT, the city gate has a central role in that city’s military, economic, judicial, political, and religious aspects of life. A key component of the defense system of a city, the gate consists of doors fortified with bars (Judg. 16:3; Ps. 107:16; Nah. 3:13) and keeps invading armies out while also serving as the point of departure and return for the city’s army (2Sam. 18:4; cf. God the warrior entering in Ps. 24:7–8). The gate also may serve as the location where news of the battle is delivered (1Sam. 4:18; 2Sam. 18:24). The destruction of the city gate usually means the destruction of the city (Isa. 24:12).
In the economic life of the city, the gate functions as a place of commerce (Gen. 23; 2Kings 7:1) and music (Lam. 5:14). At the entrance to the city gate, the city elders assembled daily to hear cases and render judgment (Job 29:7; Prov. 24:7). Along with the elders, there might be additional witnesses (Ruth 4:1–11; Ps. 69:12). For criminal cases, the gate may also be the location where punishment is enacted (Deut. 17:5; 22:24). Thus, the gate is to be a place where all people can come to obtain justice (2Sam. 15:2–4; Isa. 29:21; Amos 5:15). The gate may hold a seat reserved for the king (2Sam. 19:8) as well as the king’s officials (Esther 2:19–21; 3:2–3). The city gate might also contain shrines to various gods (2Kings 23:8; cf. Acts 14:13).
Some references to gates refer to those of the temple area (Ezek. 44; 46; Pss. 100:4; 118:19–20). In Ezek. 48 the temple area is to have twelve gates, each named after a tribe of Israel (Ezek. 48:30–35; cf. Rev. 21:12–25). The prophet Jeremiah proclaims the word of the Lord from both the city gate(s) (Jer. 17:19–27) and the temple gate(s) (7:1–4).
In the NT, Jesus raises the dead son of a widow at the town gate (Luke 7:11–17) and heals a lame man near the Sheep Gate (John 5:1–15). Peter heals a crippled man near the temple gate (Acts 3:1–10). Jesus mentions gates in his teaching, including a call to enter through the narrow gate of life (Matt. 7:13–14), and his parable of the sheep and the gate, in which Jesus refers to himself as the gate (John 10:1–18). See also City Gates.
Almost all the oil to which the Bible refers is olive oil. Oil was used primarily for cooking, but also for medicinal purposes, cosmetics, lighting, and religious ceremonies.
Oil was one of the major export products of Palestine, with huge economic impact on Israel and Judah. Oil often was used as currency for other needed materials (Deut. 7:13; Neh. 5:11; Luke 16:6). For example, Elisha performed a miracle with oil to help a widow pay her debts (2Kings 4:7). Oil was kept as part of the royal stores (2Kings 20:13; 2Chron. 32:28). There are dozens of ostraca that detail the trading, bartering, and selling of oil.
Oil was one of the main ingredients for cooking. A typical meal consisted of flour pressed together with oil and fried with oil on a griddle (1Kings 17:1216). This was also the typical way in which grain offerings were made at the tabernacle and temple (Lev. 2:1, 4–7). Oil was also used in lamps because it burned cleanly and produced bright light (2Kings 4:10; Matt. 25:3–8). Lamps were used throughout the house. Small lamps, often no larger than a hand, were used to give people light when they were walking and traveling at night. In such instances, extra oil usually was carried as a reserve (Matt. 25:1–13). Both the tabernacle and the temple used olive oil to light their lamps. The finest oil was also used for sacrifices at the tabernacle (Exod. 27:20; 29:40; Lev. 24:2; Num. 28:5).
Oil was used cosmetically as well. For instance, oil was put in the hair for beauty (Eccles. 9:8). Oil was also the normal base for perfumes, mixed with a variety of spices (Esther 2:12). The tabernacle had special anointing oil that was mixed to make a perfume (Exod. 30:25). Oil was also used medicinally to help heal wounds, either by mixing it with other substances or by itself to help seal a wound (Luke 10:34). The elders of the church were commissioned to pray for and anoint the sick with oil (James 5:14).
In the OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modern ways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayer does not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer to God, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray to humans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction between the sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in the OT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, such as that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. These should be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, but rather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” in recognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. In the NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.
A presupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and may indeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is not primarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of the one praying, but rather about God changing the circ*mstances of the one praying.
The depiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of the OT, but there are important developments.
Jesus tells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt. 6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Prayer to God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:1920; John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26).
Prayer can also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him in the early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Unlike anything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for their enemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke 23:34; Acts 7:60).
The Holy Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we are able to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is to be done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor. 14:15).
Jesus encourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke 18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).
Jesus becomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions (Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points (Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offers prayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers that are (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and not give up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overly literalized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17 NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb. 5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and even now, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, our intercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb. 4:14–16).
In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such as Israel, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periods could be hoped for each year, in February/March and in October/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a good crop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’s promise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4). Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of this promise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would be given to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:3536).
Rain could also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives, where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the face of the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rain accompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).
Since rain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbol of God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A striking example of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three years the rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in God was vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. The effectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and later for rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James 5:17–18).
Two ancient city-states of the Phoenicians that have a long and well-documented history predating many of the events in the Bible. Genesis 10:15 notes that Sidon was a son of Canaan, likely hinting at the importance of this city for the Canaanites. Several times in the Bible the term “Sidon” or “Sidonians” serves as an alternate name for the Phoenicians or Canaanites and usually refers to the southern part of this northern neighbor. There was much social and political interaction between Sidon and Tyre and the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, including Solomon’s marriage to several women from Sidon (1Kings 11:1) and the Omride dynasty’s treaties and intermarriage with the Phoenicians (16:31). For much of the tenth through seventh centuries BC, Israel and the Phoenicians were close economic allies, with Israel providing materials for trade, and the cities of Sidon and Tyre offering the transport of those goods in their famed ships. Like Israel, Sidon and Tyre suffered under the expansions of the Assyrians and the Babylonians. Both Sidon and Tyre often were recipients of the OT prophets’ ire. Tyre especially was subject to many prophetic denouncements of which Ezekiel’s is an archetype (Ezek. 26:128:19). Ezekiel prophesied the total destruction of the city. Both cities had special cultic centers that advocated various versions of Baal worship and attempted to propagate their religion, as demonstrated by the actions of Jezebel, the wife of King Ahab and daughter of the king of Sidon.
Tyre and Sidon continued to be significant cities under Roman rule during the NT period. Jesus went to these two locations and condemned Jewish cities by saying that even the pagan Tyre and Sidon would have repented if they had witnessed miracles he had performed around them (Matt. 11:20–23). Paul also traveled to Tyre, staying there for seven days during a missionary journey (Acts 21:3–4).
Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’s commandment to the contrary (2:1617), Eve ate from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. When Adam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete. They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaves were inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with their attempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent, Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).
In the midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways that sin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised to put hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of the woman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blow upon the offspring of the woman, the offspring of the woman would defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequate covering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implication is that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adam and Eve, covering their sin.
In one sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holy God satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationship with human beings without compromising his justice? The short answer is: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), who eventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemed them from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought them to Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated on obedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant was the sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided as a means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrifices made for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year to atone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement the high priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies and sprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took a second goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people of Israel, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them on the head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness.... The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barren region; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev. 16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinful people, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.
During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longing for God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last, when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it was revealed that he would “save his people from their sins” (Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, John the Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereas both Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to be the obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation (Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13; Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also the Suffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45; cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrath of God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. With his justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify all who are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). What neither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, Jesus Christ did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).
After his resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers began proclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus did and calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins” (Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness, they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned against them (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believers continue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal. 5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23). The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the new heaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse (Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).
As even this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesis to Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’s plot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative; it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved in order for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.
The way the word “soul” is used in English does not align well with any single Hebrew or Greek word in the Bible. It is widely accepted that the biblical view (both OT and NT) of humanity does not recognize sharp boundaries between body and soul (bipartite anthropology) or between body, soul, and spirit (tripartite). The human being is, according to biblical teaching, a psychosomatic unity.
A room on an upper story or roof of a building. King Ahaziah’s fall through the lattice of an upper room caused his death (2Kings 1:2). Jesus instructed his disciples to prepare their final meal together in an upper room (Mark 14:15; Luke 22:12). Tradition holds that the disciples met to pray in this room after Jesus’ ascension (Acts 1:13). Widows grieved over Dorcas in an upper room until Peter’s prayer restored her life (Acts 9:39). Paul revived Eutychus, who had died after dozing off and falling from an upper room to the ground (Acts 20:812).
A ravine, gorge, valley, or streambed, sometimes steep, in an arid region that is dry except during rainy season, when it becomes susceptible to torrential, life-threatening flash flooding. Job compares his fickle friends to a wadi (Job 6:1520; NIV: “intermittent streams”).
Water is mentioned extensively in the Bible due to its prevalence in creation and its association with life and purity. The cosmic waters of Gen. 1 are held back by the sky (Gen. 1:67; cf. Pss. 104:6, 13; 148:4). God is enthroned on these waters in his cosmic temple (Pss. 29:10; 104:3, 13; cf. Gen. 1:2; Ps. 78:69; Isa. 66:1). These same waters were released in the time of Noah (Gen. 7:10–12; Ps. 104:7–9).
Water is also an agent of life and fertility and is therefore associated with the presence of God. Both God himself and his temple are described as the source of life-giving water (Jer. 2:13; 17:13; Joel 3:18; cf. Isa. 12:2–3). Ezekiel envisions this water flowing from beneath the temple and streaming down into the Dead Sea, where it brings life and fecundity (Ezek. 47:1–12; cf. Zech. 14:8). The book of Revelation, employing the same image, describes “the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb” (22:1). This imagery is also illustrated in archaeological remains associated with temples. Cisterns are attested beneath the Dome of the Rock (presumably the location of the Jerusalem temple) and beneath the Judahite temple at Arad. Other temples, such as the Israelite high place at Tel Dan, are located close to freshwater springs. The Gihon spring in the City of David may also be associated with the Jerusalem temple (Ps. 46:4; cf. Gen. 2:13).
This OT imagery forms the background for Jesus’ teaching regarding eternal life in the writings of the apostle John. Jesus claims to be the source of living water, and he offers it freely to everyone who thirsts (John 4:10–15; 7:37; Rev. 21:6; 22:17; cf. Rev. 7:17). This water, which produces “a spring of water welling up to eternal life” (John 4:14), is the work of the Holy Spirit in the believer (John 7:38–39).
Water is also described in the Bible as an agent of cleansing. It is extensively employed in purification rituals in the OT. In the NT, the ritual of water baptism signifies the purity and new life of the believer (Matt. 3:11, 16; Mark 1:8–10; Luke 3:16; John 1:26, 31–33; 3:23; Acts 1:5; 8:36–39; 10:47; 11:16; 1Pet. 3:20–21; cf. Eph. 5:26; Heb. 10:22).
Finally, the NT also reveals Jesus as the Lord of water. He walks on water (Matt. 14:28–29; John 6:19), turns water into wine (John 2:7–9; 4:46), and controls water creatures (Matt. 17:27; John 21:6). Most important, Jesus commands “the winds and the water, and they obey him” (Luke 8:25; cf. Ps. 29:3).
Taken together “poor,” “orphan,” and “widow” are mentioned in the NIV 280 times, evidence of God’s particular concern for those in need. “Poor” is an umbrella term for those who are physically impoverished or of diminished spirit. In biblical terms, “poor” would include most orphans and widows, though not every poor person was an orphan or widow.
The NT advances the atmosphere of kindness and nonoppression toward the poor and those in need found in the OT. The NT church was marked by such a real and selfless generosity that its members sold their own possessions and gave to “anyone who had need” (Acts 2:45). The poor were to be treated with generosity, and needs were to be addressed whenever they were discovered (Matt. 19:21; Luke 3:11; 11:41; 12:33; 14:13; 19:8; Acts 6:1; 9:36; Rom. 15:26; Gal. 2:10).
Furthermore, because of the incarnation of Christ, in which the almighty God chose to dwell with humanity, distinctions between believers on the basis of material wealth and, more specifically, favoritism toward the rich were expressly forbidden by the NT writers (1Cor. 11:2022; Phil. 2:1–8; James 2:1–4).
Other specific biblical instructions regarding people in need concern those without parents and especially those without a father. Such individuals are referred to as “fatherless.” As with the provisions made for the poor, oppression of orphans or the fatherless was strictly forbidden (Exod. 22:22; Deut. 24:17; 27:19; Isa. 1:17; 10:1–2; Zech. 7:10). Furthermore, God is often referred to as the provider and helper of the orphan or fatherless (Deut. 10:18; Pss. 10:14, 18; 68:5; 146:9; Jer. 49:11). Jesus promised not to leave his followers as “orphans,” implying that he would not leave them unprotected (John 14:18). In one of the clearest statements of how Christian belief is to manifest itself, James states, “Religion that God our Father accepts as pure and faultless is this: to look after orphans and widows in their distress and to keep oneself from being polluted by the world” (James 1:27).
Since widows are bereft of their husbands and thus similar to orphans in vulnerability and need, they are the beneficiaries of special provisions in both Testaments. Oppression was forbidden (Exod. 22:22), provisions were to be given in similar fashion to that of the poor and orphans (Deut. 24:19–21), and ample warnings were given to those who would deny justice to widows (Deut. 27:19). Jesus raised a widow’s son from death (Luke 7:14–15), a miracle especially needed because she lacked provision after her only son’s death. The apostle Paul gave specific rules to Timothy regarding who should be placed on the list of widows to receive daily food: they must be over sixty years old and must have been faithful to their husbands (1Tim. 5:9). In the book of Revelation, a desolate city without inhabitants is aptly described as a “widow” (18:7).
In the Bible, woman is first encountered along with man in Gen. 1:2628. God created “man” in the plural, male and female, and commanded them to reproduce and to fill the earth and subdue it. Being created male and female is set in parallel to being created in the image of God. In the ancient Near East, perhaps the king would be thought of as the image of God. But in Genesis, not only is the first man the image of God, but the first woman participates in the image as well. This is all but unthinkable in the ancient world, and it suggests an unparalleled dignity and worth in womankind.
Genesis records that the human race fell through the instrumentality of a man, a woman, and the serpent. The serpent approached the woman, not the man. The woman was convinced by the serpent and ate the forbidden fruit. She gave some to her husband, who also ate it without saying a word. Thus, the woman can be blamed in part for the fall of the race. Adam was condemned because he “listened to [his] wife” (Gen. 3:17). Her judgment, for heeding the serpent, was pain in childbirth and a desire for her husband, who would rule over her (Gen. 3:16). The exact parameters of this judgment are unclear, but it appears that her desire will be for his position of leadership and will be perpetually frustrated.
Often in the Bible, women are motivated by their desire to have children. Rachel demanded of Jacob, “Give me children, or I’ll die!” (Gen. 30:1). She saw herself in competition with her sister, Leah, in this respect (30:8). The “fruit of the womb” is a reward, and like arrows, the blessed man’s quiver is full of them (Ps. 127:1–5). Note also the beatitude of Ps. 128:3: “Your wife will be like a fruitful vine within your house; your children will be like olive shoots around your table.”
In Genesis, the reproductive capability of slave girls is at the disposal of their owners. Thus, Rachel and Leah’s maidservants became surrogate mothers for a number of their sons (Gen. 30:3–10). Sarah also became frustrated at her inability to conceive, so she gave Hagar to Abraham. The result was great familial turmoil, finally resulting in the banishment of both Hagar and Ishmael, whom she bore to Abraham.
In the beginning, God joined one man and one woman together as husband and wife. But soon this idea was corrupted, and Lamech, a man from Cain’s lineage, is credited with the first polygamous marriage (Gen. 4:19). Although the patriarchs (such as Jacob) did have more than one wife, the household discontent and strife are what is highlighted in those stories, such as with Hagar. In the NT, an elder is to be, literally, a “one-woman man” (1Tim. 3:2; ESV, KJV: “the husband of one wife”), meaning monogamous.
The Torah contains significant legislation regarding women. The daughters of Zelophehad argued that their father died without sons, so in Canaan they were disinherited. God agreed and decreed that in Israel daughters would inherit land in the absence of sons. Only if there were no children at all would the land pass to other kin (Num. 27:1–11).
When a man made a vow, he must fulfill it, but a young woman’s vow was subject to her father. If he remained silent, the vow stood, but if he expressed disapproval, then she was freed from it. If she was married, her husband governed her vows, but if she was divorced, then there was no responsible male over her, and her vow was treated as a man’s (Num. 30:1–16).
Sexual intercourse was also regulated in the law of Moses, insofar as the act rendered both parties ritually impure (Lev. 15:18). Both must bathe and were unclean until evening. A woman’s menstrual discharge also made her unclean for a week. Everything she sat or lay upon was unclean, as was anyone who touched these things. She must wash and offer sacrifice to become clean again (15:18–31).
If a man discovered on his wedding night that his bride was not a virgin, he could accuse her publicly. If her parents provided evidence that she had in fact been a virgin, then the man was severely punished for lying and not allowed to divorce her (otherwise, it was simply a matter of writing a letter to divorce her [Deut. 24:1]). If her virginity could not be proved, she was to be put to death by stoning (Deut. 22:13–21).
In the case of a rape of a betrothed virgin, if it occurred in the city, both the rapist and the victim were stoned, since apparently she had failed to cry out for help and thus, the law assumed, consented to sexual intercourse. If she was raped in the countryside, only the man was killed. But if he raped a woman who was not spoken for, his punishment was that he must marry her without possibility of divorce (Deut. 22:23–29).
Numbers 5:11–31 treats cases where a husband was suspicious that his wife had been unfaithful—that is, a matter of covenantal jealousy. The unprovable was left to God to punish.
In the Bible, women sometimes are afforded dignity beyond what is expected in an ancient Near Eastern provenance. Hagar is the only woman in all ancient Near Eastern literature who gave a name to a deity (Gen. 16:13). In Judg. 4:4, Deborah “judged” Israel (despite the NIV’s “leading,” the underlying Hebrew verb indicates “judging,” as in the NRSV). Even as judge, however, she did not lead the army against the enemy general Sisera; Barak did so. But Barak was unwilling to undertake this mission unless Deborah went with him (4:8). Thus, God ensured that the prestige of killing Sisera went to a woman, Jael (4:9, 21). Another prominent woman was Huldah, to whom the priests turned for guidance when the law was rediscovered (2Kings 22:14).
Many biblical stories feature heroines. Mighty Pharaoh was undermined by two midwives in his attempt to destroy Israel (Exod. 1:15–21). Ruth the Moabite woman gave her name to the book that recounts her trek from Moab to Israel, including her famous oath of loyalty (Ruth 1:16–17). Esther too was a courageous woman whose book bears her name. Heroines are especially prominent in the Gospels, and the women there have the distinction of being the first to witness the risen Lord. Luke’s birth narrative is largely organized around Mary. Priscilla (with her husband) taught and helped to shape the early church (Acts 18:26). Paul lists many women in Rom. 16, calling them “deaconess,” “fellow worker,” and possibly even “apostle.”
Scripture also at times portrays various women as being temptations to men. Eve handed the fruit to Adam (Gen. 3:6). In the wilderness Israel worshiped Moabite gods in conjunction with sexual activity (Num. 25:1–9). Later, Israelites intermarried with Canaanite women, directly leading to worship of their idols (Judg. 3:6). Bathsheba was a temptation to David, and this began a series of events that marred his career as a man after God’s own heart. Solomon loved many foreign women, who turned him to worship their gods. After the exile, the Israelites were admonished by Nehemiah to put away their foreign wives lest history repeat itself (Neh. 13:26).
Women and marriage are used in the Bible as images for spiritual things. Paul writes that marital love mirrors the church’s relationship with Christ (Eph. 5:32–33). A man should love his wife as Christ loved the church. Revelation portrays the climax to human history in the figure of two women: the bride of Christ, adorned with righteous deeds for her husband (19:7–8), and the whor* Babylon, drunk on the blood of the saints (17:5–6). The consummation of the age is when one is judged and the other enters her eternal marital bliss.
The book of Proverbs also separates humankind into two groups, symbolized by two women. Along the path of life, the youth hears the voices of Woman Folly (9:13–18) and of Woman Wisdom (1:20–33) calling out to him. Folly is incarnated in the flesh-and-blood temptation of the immoral woman (7:6–27), whereas Woman Wisdom has her counterpart at the end of the book in the detailed description of the woman of virtue (31:10–31). There, the woman who fears God is set as a prize far above earthly wealth—the highest blessing of the wise.
Paul uses two women from sacred history to help explain his gospel of law versus grace. Hagar the slave woman represents the Mosaic covenant given at Sinai, and the earthly Jerusalem—that is, a mind-set of slavery that futilely attempts to earn God’s favor by works of the law. Sarah was the free woman, and her son was the promised son, who represents the heavenly Jerusalem, the new covenant, and freedom from the requirements of the law (Gal. 4:21–31). Again, two women symbolize two paths and two peoples—one being slaves, the other being God’s free people.
“Word” is used in the Bible to refer to the speech of God in oral, written, or incarnate form. In each of these uses, God desires to make himself known to his people. The communication of God is always personal and relational, whether he speaks to call things into existence (Gen. 1) or to address an individual directly (Gen. 2:1617; Exod. 3:14). The prophets and the apostles received the word of God (Deut. 18:14–22; John 16:13), some of which was proclaimed but not recorded. The greatest revelation in this regard is the person of Jesus Christ, who is called the “Word” of God (John 1:1, 14).
The psalmist declared God’s word to be an eternal object of hope and trust that gives light and direction (Ps. 119), and Jesus declared the word to be truth (John 17:17). The word is particularized and intimately connected with God himself by means of the key phrases “your word,” “the word of God,” “the word of the Lord,” “word about Christ,” and “the word of Christ” (Rom. 10:17; Col. 3:16). Our understanding of the word is informed by a variety of terms and contexts in the canon of Scripture, a collection of which is found in Ps. 119.
The theme of the word in Ps. 119 is continued and clarified in the NT, accentuating the intimate connection between the word of God and God himself. The “Word” of God is the eternal Lord Jesus Christ (John 1:1; 1John 1:1–4), who took on flesh and blood so that we might see the glory of the eternal God. The sovereign glory of Christ as the Word of God is depicted in the vision of John in Rev. 19:13. As the Word of God, Jesus Christ ultimately gives us our lives (John 1:4; 6:33; 10:10), sustains our lives (John 5:24; 6:51, 54; 8:51), and ultimately renders a just judgment regarding our lives (John 5:30; 8:16, 26; 9:39; cf. Matt. 25:31–33; Heb. 4:12).
Direct Matches
The KJV rendering of a Hebrew word (kad ) referring tothe container (NIV: “jar”) in which the widow ofZarephath had a handful of flour (1 Kings 17:12, 14, 16).Miraculously, the contents of this container did not run out.
A surface to recline on for the purpose of sleep,convalescence, contemplation, and sexual activity. Constructionranged from a portable straw mat (Mark 6:55; Acts 9:34) to raisedframes crafted of wood, metal, or stone inlaid with precious metalsand jewels (Deut. 3:11; Amos 6:4) and topped with luxurious coverings(Prov. 7:16, 17; 31:22). The mats of poor people might be rolled upand stowed away during the day to save space when they slept in acommon room (Luke 11:7). The rich reclined on permanent structures inrooms designated for sleeping (Exod. 8:3; 2 Kings 6:12), butpeople of more modest means also had bedrooms (2 Kings 4:10).
Themost commonly cited use of a bed is not for sleeping (Ps. 132:3; Luke11:7) but for convalescing (Gen. 48:2; Exod. 21:18; 2 Sam. 13:5;Ps. 41:3; Matt. 8:14; Acts 28:8) or dying (Gen. 49:33; 2 Kings1:4, 6, 16). Elijah restores life to a boy after placing him on a bed(1 Kings 17:19; cf. Elisha in 2 Kings 4:21, 34, 35). Murderis attempted (1 Sam. 19:13, 15, 16) or accomplished in bed(2 Sam. 4:7, 11; 2 Chron. 24:25).
Thebed is for sexual activity, whether honorable (Song 1:16; Heb. 13:4)or not (Gen. 39:7, 10, 12; 49:4; 2 Sam. 13:11). People mope andmourn on beds (1 Kings 21:4; Ps. 6:6; Song 3:1; Hos. 7:14), loaf(Prov. 26:14), plot evil (Ps. 36:4; Mic. 2:1), meditate and rejoice(Pss. 4:4; 63:6; 149:5), and experience visions (Dan. 2:28; 4:5;7:1). The bed is a metaphor for the grave (Job 7:13; 17:13; Ezek.32:25).
The KJV uses “cruse” to translate a group ofHebrew terms referring to a ceramic jar or vessel used to containwater (1 Sam. 26:11; 1 Kings 19:6), honey (1 Kings14:3), oil (1 Kings 17:12), or salt (2 Kings 2:20). In twostories, a cruse of water appears at the head of a sleeping person,suggesting that the vessel was a canteen for personal use.
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
(1)Atrue prophet raised up by God during the reign of Ahab of Israel(ninth century BC) in order to counter fast-rising idolatry fueled bythe king and his foreign-born wife, Jezebel.
Falseworship at this time focused on Baal, a major Canaanite deity who wasthe god of fertility, having power over dew, rain, lightning, andthunder. Thus, as people turned to Baal for these life-giving forces,God shut up the heavens so there would be no rain in Israel (1Kings17:1). God also at this time sent Elijah the Tishbite to confront theking.
Elijahlived in the wilderness, perhaps to escape the vengeance of the royalcouple and to avoid being tainted by the perversities of the state ofIsrael. He had a distinctive appearance: very hairy and dressed in aloincloth (2Kings 1:8).
Throughthe performance of miraculous acts, Elijah demonstrated that God waswith him. The first such act was multiplying the food supplies of awidow who provided him with food. Even more dramatically, he prayedfor the woman’s son when the child died, and the dead boy beganto breathe again (1Kings 17:17–24).
Elijah’smost dramatic moment came when he confronted Ahab and his many Baalprophets on Mount Carmel (1Kings 18). Yahweh fought Baal on thelatter’s terms. The object was whether Yahweh or Baal couldthrow fire from heaven to light the altar fire. Baal was purportedlya specialist at throwing fire (lightning), and his prophets wentfirst. However, because Baal did not really exist, they failed. WhenYahweh’s turn came, Elijah increased the stakes by pouringwater on the wood. Yahweh, the one true God, threw fire from heaven,which burned the sacrifice, wood, stones, and dirt, and even dried upthe water. Soon thereafter, God opened up the skies so that it rainedagain. Even so, Ahab and then his son Ahaziah (2Kings 1)continued to worship Baal.
Elijahcontinued to confront the wicked idolatry of these kings. God usedhim to pronounce judgment against Ahab and Jezebel, as well as thedynasty, after the royal pair unjustly had Naboth the Jezreeliteexecuted simply so they could possess his field (1Kings21).
Elijahwas a devoted servant of Yahweh. Before Elijah passed from this life,God introduced him to his successor, Elisha. When the end came, hedid not die but rather was caught up to heaven (2Kings2:1–18)—only the second person reported to leave thislife without dying (cf. Enoch in Gen. 5:21–24).
Towardthe end of the OT period, the prophet Malachi announced the comingday of the Lord (Mal. 4:5–6). As a precursor to that day, Godwould send the prophet Elijah as a forerunner. Some people thoughtthat Jesus was Elijah (Matt. 16:14; Mark 6:15; 8:28; Luke 9:8, 19),but Jesus is the one who ushers in the kingdom of God. John theBaptist was his forerunner, and so it was he who is rightlyassociated with Elijah (Matt. 11:13–14). Indeed, his wildernesslifestyle and ministry echoed those of Elijah. At the Mount ofTransfiguration, Elijah appeared to Jesus along with Moses; these twowilderness figures represented the prophets and the law (Matt.17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36).
(2)Adescendant of Benjamin and ancestor of Saul (1Chron. 8:27).(3)Adescendant of Harim, who married a foreign woman during the time ofEzra (Ezra 10:21). (4)Adescendant of Elam, who married a foreign woman during the time ofEzra (Ezra 10:26).
In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such asIsrael, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periodscould be hoped for each year, in February/March and inOctober/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a goodcrop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’spromise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4).Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of thispromise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would begiven to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:35–36).
Raincould also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives,where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the faceof the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rainaccompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).
Sincerain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbolof God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A strikingexample of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three yearsthe rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in Godwas vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. Theeffectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and laterfor rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James5:17–18).
Finely ground wheat or other grain, made from the innerkernels of the grain and sifted to remove larger pieces of meal. Fineflour sometimes was used for baking bread (Gen. 18:6), but the“finest kernels of wheat” were regarded as a luxuryproduct (Deut. 32:14; Ps. 81:16). This fine flour was used for makingofferings (Exod. 29:2; Lev. 2:1–7). Coarser flour, or meal, wasground from the whole grains, and this was one of the most basicfoodstuffs in ancient Israel (1Kings 4:22). God’smiraculous supply of oil and flour was sufficient to enable the widowat Zarephath to provide for her household in time of famine (1Kings17:8–16).
In ancient Israel, as an agricultural community, the housewas the center of family life. Apart from daily family activities,the basic functions of an Israelite house were for storage andstabling.
Atypical house in Iron Age Palestine was basically rectangular inshape, constructed of sun-dried mud-bricks, and completely roofed. Itconsisted of either three or four rooms, although in some rareoccasions it was a two-room house. The size of the house varied,depending on the wealth of the owner. Structurally, the mostimportant and noticeable features were the pillars, generally made ofstone. These monolithic pillars separated the rooms from thecourtyard and supported the flat roof or ceiling. A three-room houseusually consisted of a row of pillars in the center of the structure,while a four-room house consisted of two rows, dividing the two siderooms, with the courtyard in the middle.
Wallsprovided enclosure for a family unit but could also serve aspartitions between adjacent houses. They were constructed ofmud-brick (cf. Exod. 5:7) and erected on a stone foundation. Theexterior of the walls needed regular whitewashing to prevent erosioncaused by winter rain (cf. Ezek. 13:10–18), and the interiorwalls were decorated with painted line ornaments (Jer. 22:14). Unlikemodern windows, Israelite windows were essentially slits in thewalls, without glass filling (Josh. 2:15; 2Cor. 11:33). Forsecurity and climate control, they were small, but they were goodenough for natural lighting and ventilation (cf. Hos. 13:3). Oillamps were placed in the wall niches (2Kings 4:10; Matt. 5:15).
Theentrance to the house usually was in the center of the front wall.The door, which opened inward, was mounted with three woodendoorframes on two sides and on top of the wooden door (cf. Exod.12:7, 22–23). The door was locked from the inside with atumbler lock and a wooden bolt (Judg. 3:25; Neh. 3:3). From outside,it was accessed through a fist-sized keyhole (Song 5:4) with a largekey (Isa. 22:22). A stone threshold (1Kings 14:17; cf. 1Sam.5:4–5) was laid at the base of the door.
Theceiling of the ground floor was less than six feet high. The centralroom was used for work such as food processing, although cooking wasalso done outdoors. A hearth was a hole in the ground used to setfire for cooking or for warmth (Jer. 36:22). The side rooms were usedfor stables (1Sam. 28:24). At the rear of the house was a broadroom (cf. Ps. 128:3; Amos 6:10) used mainly for storage purposes. Thefloor of the courtyard was laid with beaten earth, while the roomshad dirt floors. The upper level, which served as a place forsleeping, dining, and leisure activities (1Kings 17:19; 2Kings4:10; Mark 14:15; Acts 9:37), was accessed through a wooden ladderfrom inside the house or through a stone staircase from the outside.
Aunique feature of Israelite houses was the roof. The flat, plasteredroof served as the place for domestic activities (e.g., Josh. 2:6–8;1Sam. 9:25–26; 2Sam. 11:2) and religious activities(Jer. 19:13; 32:29; Zeph. 1:5; Acts 10:9), especially during hotweather. It was not uncommon for grass to grow on it (Isa. 37:27).Since it was flat, waterproofing was a pressing problem. As such,constant compacting and resurfacing of the roof with a limestoneroller was needed (cf. Eccles. 10:18). For safety, parapets werebuilt around the roof (Deut. 22:8). Since the roof was elevated andpublic, activities there were noticeable by people outside; thuspublic announcement could be made from the roof (Matt. 10:27; Luke12:3). Absalom had sexual intercourse with David’s concubineson a rooftop, which might have been an act of public declaration ofhis kingship (2Sam. 16:22).
A vessel made from earthenware or animal skins, used to storeand carry grain, water, and other substances. Notable examples ofjugs in Scripture include King Saul’s water jug, which wasstolen by David (1Sam. 26:11–16), and the widow atZarephath’s oil jug, which upon God’s word through Elijahdid not run out of oil (1Kings 17:12–16).
The upper room of a house in 1Kings 17:19 KJV.
Almost all the oil to which the Bible refers is olive oil.Oil was used primarily for cooking, but also for medicinal purposes,cosmetics, lighting, and religious ceremonies.
Oliveoil was produced in several different ways, but there were somecommon characteristics of all the different production methods. Olivetrees were numerous in Israel and often were cultivated and plantedin groves. The Mount of Olives in Jerusalem was so named because ofthe large olive groves there (2Sam. 15:30). Olives wereharvested sometime in the fall by handpicking them or hitting thetree to make the olives fall (Deut. 24:20). Next, the olives werepartially crushed so that the kernels (pits) could be removed withoutcrushing them. Crushing the kernel would result in ruining the oil.Then the pits were removed by hand, and the pitted olives werecrushed to procure the oil. The olives could be crushed by foot (Mic.6:15 NRSV), by beating them with a heavy stick, or by placing them ina shallow stone trench and rolling a stone wheel over them. Finally,the crushed olives were placed in a woven sieve to allow the oil todrain out. The remains of the olives were then soaked in water andpressed at least twice more. This produced more oil, though of muchlower quality. As a result, oil was sold according to its qualitylevel. By the time of the monarchy in Israel, there were severallarge mills that produced large quantities of oil both for use in thecountry and for export. The finest quality oil—the clear, pureoil drained off before pressing—was specially processed andsuitable for ceremonial use.
Oilwas one of the major export products of Palestine, with huge economicimpact on Israel and Judah. Oil often was used as currency for otherneeded materials (Deut. 7:13; Neh. 5:11; Luke 16:6). For example,Elisha preformed a miracle with oil to help a widow pay her debts(2Kings 4:7). Oil was kept as part of the royal stores (2Kings20:13; 2Chron. 32:28). There are dozens of ostraca that detailthe trading, bartering, and selling of oil.
Oilwas one of the main ingredients for cooking. A typical meal consistedof flour pressed together with oil and fried with oil on a griddle(1Kings 17:12–16). This was also the typical way in whichgrain offerings were made at the tabernacle and temple (Lev. 2:1,4–7). Oil was also used in lamps because it burned cleanly andproduced bright light (2Kings 4:10; Matt. 25:3–8). Lampswere used throughout the house. Small lamps, often no larger than ahand, were used to give people light when they were walking andtraveling at night. In such instances, extra oil usually was carriedas a reserve (Matt. 25:1–13). Both the tabernacle and thetemple used olive oil to light their lamps. The finest oil was alsoused for sacrifices at the tabernacle (Exod. 27:20; 29:40; Lev. 24:2;Num. 28:5).
Oilwas used cosmetically as well. For instance, oil was put in the hairfor beauty (Eccles. 9:8). Oil was also the normal base for perfumes,mixed with a variety of spices (Esther 2:12). The tabernacle hadspecial anointing oil that was mixed to make a perfume (Exod. 30:25).Oil was also used medicinally to help heal wounds, either by mixingit with other substances or by itself to help seal a wound (Luke10:34). The elders of the church were commissioned to pray for andanoint the sick with oil (James 5:14).
In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such asIsrael, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periodscould be hoped for each year, in February/March and inOctober/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a goodcrop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’spromise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4).Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of thispromise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would begiven to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:35–36).
Raincould also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives,where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the faceof the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rainaccompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).
Sincerain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbolof God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A strikingexample of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three yearsthe rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in Godwas vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. Theeffectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and laterfor rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James5:17–18).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
Lacking the provision and protection of a husband, widows areneedy members of society, often grouped with the fatherless. BothTestaments promote special efforts to care for the needs of widows.
God’sconcern for widows is evident in descriptions of his character andhis commands for their protection and benefit. These are complementedby condemnations, punishments, and curses for those who fail to carefor widows and by praise and blessings for those who do. Widowsfigure prominently in several biblical stories.
Godhimself cares for widows and gives them justice (Deut. 10:18; Ps.68:5; Prov. 15:25). He instructs Israel and the church to care forwidows. Negative commands warn of the consequences of mistreatingwidows (Exod. 22:22–24; Deut. 24:17–18). Positivecommands require giving justice to widows (Isa. 1:17; Jer. 22:3),including them in community celebrations (Deut. 16:11–14), andproviding for them. OT provision came in two forms. Every third yeara harvest tithe was deposited in town to provide for the Levites,aliens, orphans, and widows (Deut. 14:27–29; 26:12–13).Additionally, harvesters were instructed to leave harvest remains forthe alien (a displaced person seeking refuge), orphan, and widow(Deut. 24:17–22; cf. Ruth 2). Care for widows was central tothe controversy that led to the appointment of deacons (Acts 6:1–6).Paul instructs Timothy to prioritize caring for widows who are oversixty years of age and without family to care for them (1Tim.5:1–16).
Failureto care for widows draws condemnation (Deut. 27:19; Job 24:2–3;Isa. 1:23; 10:2; Mal. 3:5; Mark 12:40). In contrast, care for widowsis a mark of righteousness that brings blessing (Job 29:12–16;Jer. 7:5–7; Acts 9:39). James includes care for widows andorphans among the essential parts in his summary of true religion(James 1:27).
TheOT included a special custom for the protection of, presumably, youngwidows. If a woman’s husband died and left her childless, herbrother-in-law was to marry her and reckon the first child of theunion as that of his deceased brother (Gen. 38:8; Deut. 25:5–6;Ruth 4:5, 10; Matt. 22:24). This custom lay behind the contentionbetween Judah and Tamar (Gen. 38).
Widowsfigure prominently in several stories. A widow cared for Elijah inZarephath (1Kings 17; cf. Luke 4:25–26). At Elisha’sinstruction, a widow was able to fill multiple containers with oilfrom a single jar (2Kings 4:1–7). Jesus brought the sonof a widow back to life (Luke 7:12–17). He remarked on a widowwho made a small yet significant contribution to the temple treasury(21:1–4). Jesus illustrated persistence in prayer with a storyabout a widow seeking justice (18:1–8). See also Poor, Orphan,Widow.
A small Sidonian town (“Sarepta” in Luke 4:26KJV) where a widow served Elijah a meal with all that was left to herhousehold (1Kings 17:7–24). Her faith and God’smiraculous provision for her in return during the three years offamine are contrasted to the Israelites’ lack of faith. At theday of the Lord, God promises that the exiles of Israel will be ableto extend the western border to this town (Obad. 20).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
1 Kings 17:7-24
is mentioned in the definition.
Almost all the oil to which the Bible refers is olive oil.Oil was used primarily for cooking, but also for medicinal purposes,cosmetics, lighting, and religious ceremonies.
Oliveoil was produced in several different ways, but there were somecommon characteristics of all the different production methods. Olivetrees were numerous in Israel and often were cultivated and plantedin groves. The Mount of Olives in Jerusalem was so named because ofthe large olive groves there (2Sam. 15:30). Olives wereharvested sometime in the fall by handpicking them or hitting thetree to make the olives fall (Deut. 24:20). Next, the olives werepartially crushed so that the kernels (pits) could be removed withoutcrushing them. Crushing the kernel would result in ruining the oil.Then the pits were removed by hand, and the pitted olives werecrushed to procure the oil. The olives could be crushed by foot (Mic.6:15 NRSV), by beating them with a heavy stick, or by placing them ina shallow stone trench and rolling a stone wheel over them. Finally,the crushed olives were placed in a woven sieve to allow the oil todrain out. The remains of the olives were then soaked in water andpressed at least twice more. This produced more oil, though of muchlower quality. As a result, oil was sold according to its qualitylevel. By the time of the monarchy in Israel, there were severallarge mills that produced large quantities of oil both for use in thecountry and for export. The finest quality oil—the clear, pureoil drained off before pressing—was specially processed andsuitable for ceremonial use.
Oilwas one of the major export products of Palestine, with huge economicimpact on Israel and Judah. Oil often was used as currency for otherneeded materials (Deut. 7:13; Neh. 5:11; Luke 16:6). For example,Elisha preformed a miracle with oil to help a widow pay her debts(2Kings 4:7). Oil was kept as part of the royal stores (2Kings20:13; 2Chron. 32:28). There are dozens of ostraca that detailthe trading, bartering, and selling of oil.
Oilwas one of the main ingredients for cooking. A typical meal consistedof flour pressed together with oil and fried with oil on a griddle(1Kings 17:12–16). This was also the typical way in whichgrain offerings were made at the tabernacle and temple (Lev. 2:1,4–7). Oil was also used in lamps because it burned cleanly andproduced bright light (2Kings 4:10; Matt. 25:3–8). Lampswere used throughout the house. Small lamps, often no larger than ahand, were used to give people light when they were walking andtraveling at night. In such instances, extra oil usually was carriedas a reserve (Matt. 25:1–13). Both the tabernacle and thetemple used olive oil to light their lamps. The finest oil was alsoused for sacrifices at the tabernacle (Exod. 27:20; 29:40; Lev. 24:2;Num. 28:5).
Oilwas used cosmetically as well. For instance, oil was put in the hairfor beauty (Eccles. 9:8). Oil was also the normal base for perfumes,mixed with a variety of spices (Esther 2:12). The tabernacle hadspecial anointing oil that was mixed to make a perfume (Exod. 30:25).Oil was also used medicinally to help heal wounds, either by mixingit with other substances or by itself to help seal a wound (Luke10:34). The elders of the church were commissioned to pray for andanoint the sick with oil (James 5:14).
A region generally identified with the landmass betweenancient Syria and Egypt, including parts of the Sinai Peninsula,Palestine from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean, and southernPhoenicia (modern Lebanon). Although there is some discussion aboutthe origin of the name “Canaan” and its meaning, the nameapparently arises from the primary inhabitants of the region prior toJoshua’s incursion into the land, since it is primarily used inconnection with the phrase “the land of,” indicating thatthe descendants of Canaan possess it. Because the identity of theland of Canaan was linked as much to its inhabitants as it was to anysort of fixed borders, the boundaries are identified in various waysthroughout the biblical text. Such descriptions vary from a ratherlimited area of influence (as suggested by Num. 13:29) to a largerland spanning an area from the Euphrates to the Nile (Gen. 15:18;Exod. 23:23). Because of its strategic position as a buffer betweenEgypt and Mesopotamia and between Arabia and the sea, it served as aprimary trading outpost and the location of numerous importanthistorical events both prior to and after Israel’s appearancein the land.
Inthe Bible, the geographical reference “the land of Canaan”finds primary expression, not surprisingly, in Genesis throughJudges. The promise to Abraham that his descendants would inherit theland of the Canaanites (Gen. 15:18–21) is the theological focalpoint of the uses of the term “Canaan” throughout thesebiblical books. Once that inheritance was achieved and Israel becamea viable state, the term’s use seems to serve the doublepurpose of being both a geographical marker and a reminder of thenature of its former predominant inhabitants. The prophets drew uponthe term to remind Israel of the land’s former status, both inits positive (Isa. 19:18) and negative (Isa. 23:11; Zeph. 2:5)connotations. The term is transliterated twice in the NT in therecounting of OT history (Acts 7:11; 13:19). One further connectionbetween Canaan and the perspectives communicated concerning it in theOT is the apparent association of the land with corrupt tradepractices. That is, while some believe that the word “Canaan”always meant “merchant” or some similar word, its use inScripture suggests that the tradesmen of Canaan were of suchdisrepute in the recollection of ancient Israel that the term becamea synonym for “unjust trader” (Job 41:6; Ezek. 16:29;17:4; Zeph. 1:11; Zech. 14:21).
History
Theproximity of Canaan to Egypt meant that from its earliest periods itfound itself beholden to the pharaohs of Egypt. The EgyptianExecration texts from the Old Kingdom era tell of Egypt’sinfluence over Canaan in the early second millennium. After theexpulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, the pharaohs of the New Kingdomasserted their control over the land. Most famous among these recordsis Thutmose III’s account of his defeat of Megiddo throughthe implementation of both cunning and skill. This same pharaoh wouldestablish a system of dividing Canaan and its inhabitants fortaxation and administration that would be so successful that Solomonwould reimplement the same system during his reign (1 Kings4:7–19). Even in the weaker days of Egypt following the NewKingdom, pharaohs such as Necho and Shishak and their successors thePtolemies would often seek to revisit the days of glory in campaignsinto Canaan.
Inaddition to Egypt, other outside forces found their way into Canaanand exerted influence on its development. The earliest settlers seemto have come from Mesopotamia, and Semitic influence is witnessed asearly as 3000 BC. In the period between Egypt’s control ofCanaan during the Old Kingdom and its later reassertion afterexpelling the Hyksos, Canaan witnessed a massive influx of Amoritesfrom the north and also incursions by the Hittites and the Hurrians.As Egypt’s power waned toward the end of the New Kingdom, thePhilistines came in from the sea and the Israelites from across theJordan. All these societies were absorbed into the Canaanite cultureor were themselves modified by the Canaanites. Israelite success inremoving mention of the Canaanites as an identifiable entity wouldnot be firmly established until late in the eighth century underHezekiah.
Thestory of Israel’s predominance in the area of Canaan begins, ofcourse, with the infiltration into the land under Joshua and persistsuntil the fall of the temple in AD 70 at the hands of the Romans.During that period, Canaan endured as a place of importance as astaging ground for controlling both Mesopotamia and Egypt andtherefore witnessed campaigns by most of the great leaders ofAssyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Of course, with eachcampaign came alterations in both the political and the culturallandscape of the land and reinforcement of the view that the area wasthe center of the world. Indeed, it is in Canaan, in the JezreelValley, that Scripture turns its focus for the final battle betweenGod and the forces of Satan at Armageddon.
Geographyand Climate
Geography.Though small in scope, the region of Canaan encompassed asurprisingly wide variety of environments. Within its topography onecould find perilous deserts, snow-capped mountains, thick forests,lush plains, coastal beaches, rugged hills, deep valleys, andseparate water sources full of both life and minerals. The Shephelah,or coastal plain, lacks any natural harbor areas that would have ledto the early exploitation of the Mediterranean in the south that isso well known in the northern areas of Phoenicia. It does, however,provide wide-open, fertile areas fed by the rain runoff from thecentral hill country, which allowed it to be a useful source offarming and civilization from a very early period.
Thecentral hill country is essentially a ridge that runs parallel to thecoast and undulates in elevation from the mountainous north to therugged but less elevated regions of the south. This ridge served as anatural barrier against travel from west to east, so it is notsurprising that important military towns such as Hazor cropped up inplaces where valleys in this ridge allowed travelers to move from thecoast to the inland regions as necessary to reach Mesopotamia fromEgypt. One such valley of significance through the history of theland of Canaan is the Esdraelon or Jezreel Valley. It provides a wideswath of land that moves from Akko in the west ( justnorth of the Carmel Range) to the Sea of Galilee in the east, withaccess points in the north and south. Within this valley weresettlements such as Megiddo and Hazor in earlier times, and Nazarethand Tiberias in later times.
Alongthe eastern edge of the central hill country is the Jordan RiftValley. The elevation drops dramatically from cities in the hillcountry, such as Jerusalem at about 2,500 feet above sea level, tocities in the valley, such as Jericho at about 1,000 feet below sealevel, within the span of about fifteen miles. The valley itself ispart of a much larger rift that starts in southeast Turkey andcontinues all the way to Mozambique in Africa. Waters from snowyMount Hermon and a couple of natural springs feed into the Sea ofGalilee and then flow into the Jordan River, which snakes its waydown into the Dead Sea. The lands around the Jordan River were oncevery fertile in the north and probably included abundant forests andwildlife. Toward the south of the Jordan River, one approaches thewilderness surrounding the Dead Sea, a region well known for itsmineral contents.
Thesouthernmost section of Canaan, known as the Negev, is an unforgivingregion with mountains, deserts, and interspersed oases throughout. Itopens up into the Arabian Desert to the east and the Sinai Peninsulato the southwest. Its primary cities of importance in biblical timeswere Beersheba and Raphia. As the gateway from Egypt to Canaan, theNegev played a significant role in biblical history.
Climate.The climate of Canaan played a significant role in its religion andhistory. It is generally recognized that climate change played arather momentous role in population movements by nomads, indestabilization of powerful governments, and in the capability, orlack thereof, of nations to participate in the trade that was at theheart of Canaan’s growth, spread of influence, and success.Within Canaan itself, because the natural water sources were on thewrong side of the central hill country, most of its water came fromrainfall. It is not surprising, therefore, that many of thediscussions that take place in both Canaanite and Israelite religiousexpressions concerning the power of their gods found utterance interms of a god’s ability to grant rain (see 1 Kings17–18). The rainy season began in October and typicallycontinued through April. The other months of the year witnessedlittle or no rainfall. Although in a temperate zone within which onemight expect high temperatures, the coastal plains were keptrelatively cool by winds coming in off the sea. The coastal mountainareas, such as Carmel, were the most likely to receive rainfall, sowhen they were without it, all the land suffered (Amos 1:2).
Cultureand Politics
Thehistory of Canaan begins with an archaeological record that travelsback into the first signs of human settlement anywhere in the world.Such early attestation exists within the confines of Palestine itselfat Jericho and Megiddo, both sites of natural springs that would haveattracted settlers. The pre-Israelite civilizations of Canaan arewell attested during the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BC). Theirculture as represented in the art and architecture of the landdemonstrates a developed people who were metropolitan in taste andgifted in style. Furthermore, because of the placement of the landbetween Egypt and Mesopotamia and the numerous incursions by outsideforces throughout its history, Canaan reveals a people with a hightolerance for change and a willingness to absorb other viewpointsinto their perspectives and practice. Archaeological finds reveal amixture of Egyptian, Sumerian, Amorite, Hittite, and Akkadianinfluences in their literature, material wealth, and religion.
Thoughunified in terms of a worldview and religious expression, the peopleof Canaan were politically committed to independent expressions oftheir power and influence. The greater cities seem to have served ashubs around which smaller communities and cities organized andremained separate from each other. The Amarna letters of thefourteenth century BC reveal leaders who did not trust each other andwho sought the Egyptian pharaoh’s favor as they vied forposition and strength. As one would expect, different city-statesheld more sway in different eras. Ebla flourished in the period of2500–2000 BC and then again around 1800 BC. Likewise, Byblosflourished in the period of 2500–1300 BC. It is in the MiddleBronze Age (2200–1550 BC) that cities more directly involvedwith the biblical narrative started to flourish. For instance,Jerusalem, Jericho, Hazor, and Megiddo reached their height of powerand influence around 1700–1500 BC, and each of these ismentioned in various texts of the time that give us some insight intoCanaan’s role in the greater political history. It isUgarit/Ras Shamra, which flourished in 1400–1200 BC, however,that has granted us the greatest amount of textual knowledge andinformation about the religion and literature of Canaan.
Religion
Theexcavations of Ras Shamra (beginning in 1929), and the accompanyingdiscovery of its archive of clay tablets, granted modern scholars aperspective into Canaanite religion that had been hinted at in thebiblical text but previously had remained somewhat of a mystery. Thetablets themselves date between 1400 and 1200 BC. They reveal ahighly developed religion with identifiable, well-defined deities.These deities represent religious practice and thought in the regionthat go back to at least 2000 BC, and the Mesopotamian religions theyare dependent on go back well beyond that.
Canaanitedeities.Theprimary gods identified in the text include El, Baal, Asherah (atUgarit, Athirat), Anath (at Ugarit, Anat), and Ashtoreth (at Ugarit,Astarte). El was the supreme Canaanite deity, though in popular usethe people of Canaan seem to have been more interested in Baal.
Therelationship between the Canaanite use of the name “El”for their supreme god and Israel’s use of the same in referenceto its own God (Gen. 33:20; Job 8:3; Pss. 18:31, 33, 48; 68:21) issomething that biblical authors used at various points in theirwritings (Ps. 81:9–10; Nah. 1:2), never in the sense ofassociating the two as one and the same, but solely for the purposeof distinguishing their God, Yahweh, from any associations with thedescriptions and nature of the Canaanite El (Exod. 34:14).Practically speaking, the coincidence probably resulted from the factthat the Hebrew word ’el had a dual intent in its common usage,similar to the way a modern English speaker will sometimes use “god”as either a common or a proper noun.
Like“El,” the term “Baal” had a dual function inits use. Because the word means “master” or “lord,”the people of Canaan could apply “Baal” to either thesingular deity of the greater pantheon or to individual gods of amore local variety. Local manifestations included Baal-Peor,Baal-Hermon, Baal-Zebul, and Baal-Meon. The OT acknowledges themultiplicity of Baals in some places (Judg. 2:11; 3:7; 1 Sam.7:4) but also seems to allude to a singular ultimate Baal (1 Kings18; 2 Kings 21:3), called “Baal-Shamen” or“Baal-Hadad” elsewhere. The fact that Baal was recognizedin the Ugaritic texts as the god of the thunderbolt adds aninteresting insight to the struggle on Mount Carmel, in which onewould suppose that had he been real, the one thing he should havebeen able to do was bring fire down from the sky; but he could not(1 Kings 18). Recognition that the term “Baal” couldrefer to a number of gods or to one ultimate god may also help oneunderstand the syncretism that took place in Israel between Yahwehand Baal addressed by the prophet Hosea (Hos. 2:16). To the commonperson who recognized the multiplicity of the term “Baal”and yet also heard of his supremacy, the assignment of the name toYahweh and the resulting combining that would occur would seem anatural progression, though still sinful in the eyes of God.
Thesynthesis of Baal and Yahweh is demonstrated in Scripture as being atemptation from national Israel’s earliest encounters withBaalism. The events at Peor (Num. 25) demonstrate a propensity towardthis type of activity, but the confusion between Yahweh and Baalbecame strongest once Israel entered into the land. Gideon had asecond name, “Jerub-Baal” (Judg. 6:32), and the peoplethemselves worshiped Baal-Berith (“Baal of the covenant”)as an indication that they believed their covenant to be with Baal,not Yahweh. Saul, Jonathan, and David all had sons named for Baal:Esh-Baal, Merib-Baal, and Beeliada respectively. Jeroboam I madethe connection even more explicit in his setting of shrines at Danand Bethel with the golden calves that were common icons for Baal inthe era, but that he apparently viewed as being appropriaterepresentations of Yahweh. By the time of the prophets, suchconfusion evidently was entrenched into the very heart of both Israeland Judah; however, Yahweh was able to utilize the false assessmentsof his character to clarify his true character and ultimately bringIsrael back to him.
Asherahwas the wife of El in Ugaritic mythology, but apparently because ofBaal’s accessibility and ubiquitous nature, she was ultimatelygiven to Baal as a consort among Canaanites in the south. Apparently,her worship was also linked to trees, and the mentioning of “Asherahpoles” (Exod. 34:13; Deut. 7:5; Judg. 6:25) in Scripturesuggests that such a linkage had been stylized into representativetrees at sacred locations. Asherah had prophets (1 Kings 18:19)and specific instruments of worship in Israel (2 Kings 23:4) andbecame so ensconced in practice and thought that her form often wasreplicated in the form of items known as Asherim. The previouslymentioned synthesis between Baal and Yahweh seems also to have foundexpression regarding Asherah within Israel. At Kuntillet Ajrud afamous graffito reads “Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah.”This example of the people granting a consort to Yahweh is yetanother instance where the biblical revelation is so distinct amongsurrounding cultures because of the absence of such imagery regardingGod.
Anathwas understood as both Baal’s sister and his lover in Canaanitemythology. Given her apparent replacement in the thought of thesouthern Canaanite tribes by Asherah, it is not surprising that theonly place we find Anath mentioned is in appellations, such as “BethAnath” (lit., “the house of Anath” [Josh. 19:38;Judg. 1:33]). She also seems to have played a role in the tone ofBaal worship in that she functioned as a goddess of both warfare andsexuality. Her portrayal in Ugaritic texts and in inscriptions fromEgypt suggests a lasciviousness that has become the definingcharacteristic of Canaanite worship and also seems to be at thecenter of the methodology implemented by Hosea to reach Israel, whichhad become ensnarled in a similar outlook regarding Yahweh (Hos.1–3).
Thedescriptions of Ashtoreth at Ugarit portray her in much the samelight as Anath. Some cultures such as Egypt and later Syria seem tohave even melded them together into one being. Whether this combiningwas a part of the Israelite conceptions is difficult to determine,although such a combination may explain why only Ashtoreth ismentioned in the biblical text as an individual deity and not Anath.In any case, Ashtoreth apparently was a primary figure in thecorruption of worship during the reign of Solomon (1 Kings 11:5,33; 2 Kings 23:13).
Summary.By the time the Israelites entered the land, they found a religionthat was already well established and accustomed to absorbing variousviewpoints into its expression and practice. Additionally, they founda religion that catered to the more base and animalistic tendenciesto which all humanity is drawn since the fall. The commonality ofsuch practices among almost all ancient cultures serves as a potentreminder of the distinctiveness and power of the biblical worldview.The narratives, poems, and prophetic oracles of the OT demonstrate aknowledge of these beliefs and an acknowledgment of their place inthe lives of everyday Israelites, but they never demonstrate asubmission to them in their portrayal of the true God and hisexpectations of his people.
A brook or wadi east of the Jordan River where the prophetElijah found refuge from King Ahab and Jezebel after he prophesied adrought. At this brook he was provided with water, and ravens came toprovide food (1Kings 17:3–7). After Kerith dried up,Elijah went to Zarephath and stayed with a widow there. Possiblelocations proposed for Kerith include the Wadi Qelt above Jericho andthe Wadi Yabis, but there is no consensus.
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such asIsrael, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periodscould be hoped for each year, in February/March and inOctober/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a goodcrop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’spromise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4).Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of thispromise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would begiven to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:35–36).
Raincould also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives,where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the faceof the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rainaccompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).
Sincerain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbolof God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A strikingexample of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three yearsthe rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in Godwas vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. Theeffectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and laterfor rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James5:17–18).
While Paul was preaching in Troas, this young man fell asleepand fell from his upstairs window seat (Acts 20:7–12). He was“picked up dead,” but Paul revived him. Thus Lukeportrays Paul as able to raise a boy from the dead in the traditionof Elijah and Elisha (1Kings 17:21–22; 2Kings4:34–35).
In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such asIsrael, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periodscould be hoped for each year, in February/March and inOctober/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a goodcrop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’spromise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4).Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of thispromise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would begiven to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:35–36).
Raincould also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives,where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the faceof the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rainaccompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).
Sincerain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbolof God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A strikingexample of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three yearsthe rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in Godwas vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. Theeffectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and laterfor rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James5:17–18).
In biblical times, wood was the usual fuel for cooking (Ezek.24:5) and burnt offerings (Gen. 22:3; Lev. 1:7). Wood itself was anoffering after the exile (Neh. 10:34). Children gathered wood (Jer.7:18; Lam. 5:13), as did aliens (Deut. 29:11), women (1Kings17:10), and in some cases men (Deut. 19:5). Gathering fuel wasforbidden on the Sabbath (Num. 15:32). In general, woodcutting, likecarrying water, was considered low-status work (Josh. 9:27). Inwartime, wood became expensive (Lam. 5:4), and people resorted toburning excrement as fuel (Ezek. 4:12). Vines were used as fuelbecause they were useless as lumber (Ezek. 15:6; John 15:6). Isaiahmocks the worship of idols because the same piece of wood could yieldboth an idol and firewood (Isa. 44:15). Ezekiel refers to warfare asthe burning of people as fuel (Ezek. 21:32) and to peace as theburning of weapons (39:9–10).
The restoration to full health of one who has been ill orinjured. The Bible makes a few brief references to standard “medical”attempts to heal people. For example, Jeremiah mentions a balm ofGilead (Jer. 8:22; 46:11), and Isaiah orders a “poultice offigs” to be applied to a boil on King Hezekiah (Isa. 38:21).But medical treatment in the biblical world was primitive and oftenbased more on superstition than on understanding. Before the adventof modern medicine, most injuries and sicknesses were quite serious;treatments and therapies were rarely effective. Most of the healingmentioned in the Bible, therefore, is of a miraculous nature andassociated with divine empowerment.
OldTestament.In the OT, the occurrences of healing miracles, as well as othermiracles, are not evenly distributed throughout Israel’shistory but instead are concentrated in two time periods: that of theexodus, and that of Elijah and Elisha (1Kings 17–2Kings13). During these two eras, miracles in general, and healing inparticular, authenticated God’s prophets and leaders andauthenticated the word of God spoken by these prophets and leaders.
TheOT prophets, Jeremiah in particular, frequently use the imagery ofwounds and sickness to describe the apostasy and the terriblespiritual situation of Israel and Judah. In his first twenty-ninechapters, while Jeremiah is bemoaning the fact that the people ofJudah have turned to other gods and refuse to repent, he regularlyuses imagery of sickness and wounds. He declares that Israel/Judah iswounded and/or sick, but that there is no healing for them, onlyjudgment. He asks, for example, “Is there no balm inGilead?... Why then is there no healing for thewound of my people?” (Jer. 8:22). This theme is repeated in thebook (8:15; 10:19; 14:19; 15:18).
InJer. 30–33, however, Jeremiah turns to the glorious restorationbrought about by the coming Messiah. Part of this gloriousrestoration, Jeremiah declares, will be a drastic reversal from atime of sickness with no healing (symbolizing sin and defiance) to atime characterized by healing and health. For example, in 30:12–15God uses physical sickness and wounds in his imagery to describe theserious, incurable spiritual sickness in Jerusalem. Yet in starkcontrast to statements like these, in the passages that follow Godlooks to the messianic future and proclaims, “But I willrestore you to health and heal your wounds” (30:17). Isaiahuses similar imagery, but he expands it by adding that people willultimately be healed through the suffering and the wounds (i.e., thedeath) of the coming Messiah (Isa. 53:4–5).
NewTestament.In the Gospels, healing is a significant component of Jesus’ministry. Although the prophets used sickness/healing imageryprimarily in a metaphorical sense to describe the spiritual conditionof Israel and Judah, Jesus actually fulfills their prophecies bothfiguratively and literally. That is, not only does Jesus heal peoplespiritually, providing forgiveness and restoration to wholeness, butalso he frequently heals people physically (blindness, leprosy,paralysis, etc.), ironically fulfilling figurative prophecies in aliteral manner. The Greek word for “to save” (sōzō)can also mean “to heal,” thus adding to this dual idea ofliteral healing that is also figurative of spiritual salvation. Forexample, when Jesus turns to the bleeding woman who touches him infaith, he declares to her, “Your faith has healed [sōzō]you” (Mark 5:34). Here the word sōzō can indicateeither physical healing (her bleeding had stopped) or spiritualhealing (forgiveness of sins and deliverance from judgment).
Jesusfrequently heals people throughout his ministry here on earth. Hisacts of healing authenticate him as the fulfillment of specific OTmessianic prophecies and also highlight the fact that he comes ingreat power, a power that identifies him with the Lord, the greathealer in the OT. In addition, Jesus’ acts of healing announceand characterize the inbreaking of the kingdom of God, underscoringthat in the ultimate consummation of the kingdom all sickness (aswell as blindness, leprosy, lameness, etc.) will be eliminated. Thistheme is continued at the end of the book of Revelation as Johndepicts the tree of life growing on both sides of the river of thewater of life. The leaves from this tree, John concludes, “arefor the healing of the nations” (22:1–2).
In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.
Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle
Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.
Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).
Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.
Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle
The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.
Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).
Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.
Cooking Utensils
Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.
Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.
The Cooking of Food
The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.
Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).
After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).
The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.
Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).
The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).
Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.
Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.
Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).
Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).
Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).
Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).
In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).
Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).
The act of advocating before the powerful on someone’sbehalf (Gen. 23:8–9), especially turning to God in prayer toseek God’s favor for others in crisis (2Sam. 12:16).While it is a prerogative of prophets (Gen. 20:7; Num. 12; Amos7:1–6), priests (Ezra 6:9–10), and kings (1Chron.21:17; 2Chron. 30:18; Jer. 26:19), intercession is a ministrythat belongs to all the people of God (Acts 12:5; Eph. 6:18; 1Tim.2:1; James 5:16).
OldTestament
ReflectingGod’s own deliberative process (Gen. 1:26–27; 2:18), ourcreation in God’s image implies and makes possible our genuineconversation, participation, and even disputation with God. Abiblical understanding of God’s rule accommodates thisdivine-human dialogue and the intertwined roles of both parties.People request intercession for themselves (1Kings 13:6; Acts8:24), but Scripture highlights God’s initiative.
InGen. 18 God invites (even provokes) Abraham’s intercession byconfiding in Abraham, reviewing the divine promises, and disclosingthe guilt and impending doom of Sodom and Gomorrah. On behalf ofrighteous persons who may live there, Abraham appeals boldly to God’sown “justice” (mishpat) in distinguishing the innocentfrom the guilty, and he successfully negotiates God’s pledge tospare the city if even ten righteous persons can be found there.Without disputing the allegations of wickedness, Abraham puts God’sjust response on the table as well.
Similarly,in Exod. 32 God informs Moses of the Israelites’ sin with thegolden calf and his own intention to destroy them and start over withMoses. In response, Moses intercedes, arguing that God’sdeliverance of Israel, and the likelihood of its being misconstruedby Egypt, should trump divine anger. Moses urges a different courseof action: turn from anger, relent, and do not bring the announceddisaster. The destruction of Israel would be inconsistent with God’sown commitment to multiply the people of Israel and give them theland as their inheritance (cf. Num. 14:13–29). The issue forMoses is not only Israel’s sin but also the rightness of God’sresponse in faithfulness to his purposes.
InJob’s intercession for his friends, God dictates the entireprocess, directing the friends to make offerings and assigning Jobthe task of interceding for them. God makes his own vindication thecentral issue: Eliphaz and friends have not said “the truth”(nekonah) of God, as Job had (Job 42:7–10).
Thesethree narratives highlight God’s initiative and make God’scharacter the grounds for intercession. They also introduce thepotential pain borne by the intercessor. For example, Mosesdramatizes his passionate concern for God’s cause by fallingdown before God and lying prostrate forty days and nights (Deut.9:13–29). He so identifies his own destiny with Israel’sas to offer himself as “atonement,” saying, “Pleaseforgive their sin—but if not, then blot me out of the book youhave written” (Exod. 32:32). This anticipates later prophets’participation in the sorrow of God and the pain of the people’sseparation from God (Jer. 15; cf. Luke 13:34–35; 19:41–44).
NewTestament
Inthe Gospels, Jesus heals by command, without explicit reference tointercession, and in this way remarkably transcends the OT prophets(1Kings 17:19–21). Although he does ask his Father toforgive his crucifiers (Luke 23:34), the Gospels emphasize Jesus’intercession for his disciples, such as for Simon Peter to surviveSatan’s assaults on his faith (22:31–32). John 17comprises an extended intercession of Jesus for hisdisciples—significantly, that the Father will protect them in ahostile world. Moreover, Christ promises to acknowledge faithfuldisciples before the Father (Matt. 10:32), an action formally closeto intercession, and that Christ performs as mediator of the Father’skingdom and salvation.
Paul’sprayer for his fellow Israelites to be saved is fueled by anguishover their unbelief (Rom. 9:1–3; 10:1–4). Mirroring thisis “the pressure of concern” he feels for all thechurches and for the welfare of their members (2Cor. 11:28–29),hence the prominent role of prayer in Paul’s ministry (see thethanksgivings that open his letters [e.g., Phil. 1:3–11]).Intercession perse, as prayer that others be spared ordelivered from crisis, is seen in the churches’ prayers forPaul’s deliverance from prison and death (Phil. 1:19; 2Thess.3:2–3; cf. Rom. 15:31).
TheNT extends the Gospel portrayals to reveal Christ as our heavenlyintercessor, a role made possible by the cross and resurrection. InRom. 8:34–39 Christ’s death, resurrection, and reign “atthe right hand of God” ground Paul’s confidence thatChrist’s intercession assures victory over condemnation and allopposition. The work of Christ our high priest (Heb. 7:25) may besummed up as intercession, echoing Isa. 53:12. Accordingly, “JesusChrist the Righteous One” not only advocates before the Fatherfor the forgiveness of our sins but also is their atoning sacrifice(1John 2:1–2). In these texts, Christ’s heavenlyintercession implements the saving purposes of God made real in thecross. Moreover, the work of Christ as prophet, priest, and kingimplies the central role of intercession, since intercession is afunction of each of these offices.
ThusGod’s initiative in intercession is intensified in the NT:God’s self-giving through Christ is the foundation of anongoing heavenly intercession that in turn gives the church increasedconfidence to intercede boldly. Further, God’s Spirit helps usin our weakness by interceding for us in accord with God’swill, even if we experience that intercession as “wordlessgroans” (Rom. 8:26–28).
The act of advocating before the powerful on someone’sbehalf (Gen. 23:8–9), especially turning to God in prayer toseek God’s favor for others in crisis (2Sam. 12:16).While it is a prerogative of prophets (Gen. 20:7; Num. 12; Amos7:1–6), priests (Ezra 6:9–10), and kings (1Chron.21:17; 2Chron. 30:18; Jer. 26:19), intercession is a ministrythat belongs to all the people of God (Acts 12:5; Eph. 6:18; 1Tim.2:1; James 5:16).
OldTestament
ReflectingGod’s own deliberative process (Gen. 1:26–27; 2:18), ourcreation in God’s image implies and makes possible our genuineconversation, participation, and even disputation with God. Abiblical understanding of God’s rule accommodates thisdivine-human dialogue and the intertwined roles of both parties.People request intercession for themselves (1Kings 13:6; Acts8:24), but Scripture highlights God’s initiative.
InGen. 18 God invites (even provokes) Abraham’s intercession byconfiding in Abraham, reviewing the divine promises, and disclosingthe guilt and impending doom of Sodom and Gomorrah. On behalf ofrighteous persons who may live there, Abraham appeals boldly to God’sown “justice” (mishpat) in distinguishing the innocentfrom the guilty, and he successfully negotiates God’s pledge tospare the city if even ten righteous persons can be found there.Without disputing the allegations of wickedness, Abraham puts God’sjust response on the table as well.
Similarly,in Exod. 32 God informs Moses of the Israelites’ sin with thegolden calf and his own intention to destroy them and start over withMoses. In response, Moses intercedes, arguing that God’sdeliverance of Israel, and the likelihood of its being misconstruedby Egypt, should trump divine anger. Moses urges a different courseof action: turn from anger, relent, and do not bring the announceddisaster. The destruction of Israel would be inconsistent with God’sown commitment to multiply the people of Israel and give them theland as their inheritance (cf. Num. 14:13–29). The issue forMoses is not only Israel’s sin but also the rightness of God’sresponse in faithfulness to his purposes.
InJob’s intercession for his friends, God dictates the entireprocess, directing the friends to make offerings and assigning Jobthe task of interceding for them. God makes his own vindication thecentral issue: Eliphaz and friends have not said “the truth”(nekonah) of God, as Job had (Job 42:7–10).
Thesethree narratives highlight God’s initiative and make God’scharacter the grounds for intercession. They also introduce thepotential pain borne by the intercessor. For example, Mosesdramatizes his passionate concern for God’s cause by fallingdown before God and lying prostrate forty days and nights (Deut.9:13–29). He so identifies his own destiny with Israel’sas to offer himself as “atonement,” saying, “Pleaseforgive their sin—but if not, then blot me out of the book youhave written” (Exod. 32:32). This anticipates later prophets’participation in the sorrow of God and the pain of the people’sseparation from God (Jer. 15; cf. Luke 13:34–35; 19:41–44).
NewTestament
Inthe Gospels, Jesus heals by command, without explicit reference tointercession, and in this way remarkably transcends the OT prophets(1Kings 17:19–21). Although he does ask his Father toforgive his crucifiers (Luke 23:34), the Gospels emphasize Jesus’intercession for his disciples, such as for Simon Peter to surviveSatan’s assaults on his faith (22:31–32). John 17comprises an extended intercession of Jesus for hisdisciples—significantly, that the Father will protect them in ahostile world. Moreover, Christ promises to acknowledge faithfuldisciples before the Father (Matt. 10:32), an action formally closeto intercession, and that Christ performs as mediator of the Father’skingdom and salvation.
Paul’sprayer for his fellow Israelites to be saved is fueled by anguishover their unbelief (Rom. 9:1–3; 10:1–4). Mirroring thisis “the pressure of concern” he feels for all thechurches and for the welfare of their members (2Cor. 11:28–29),hence the prominent role of prayer in Paul’s ministry (see thethanksgivings that open his letters [e.g., Phil. 1:3–11]).Intercession perse, as prayer that others be spared ordelivered from crisis, is seen in the churches’ prayers forPaul’s deliverance from prison and death (Phil. 1:19; 2Thess.3:2–3; cf. Rom. 15:31).
TheNT extends the Gospel portrayals to reveal Christ as our heavenlyintercessor, a role made possible by the cross and resurrection. InRom. 8:34–39 Christ’s death, resurrection, and reign “atthe right hand of God” ground Paul’s confidence thatChrist’s intercession assures victory over condemnation and allopposition. The work of Christ our high priest (Heb. 7:25) may besummed up as intercession, echoing Isa. 53:12. Accordingly, “JesusChrist the Righteous One” not only advocates before the Fatherfor the forgiveness of our sins but also is their atoning sacrifice(1John 2:1–2). In these texts, Christ’s heavenlyintercession implements the saving purposes of God made real in thecross. Moreover, the work of Christ as prophet, priest, and kingimplies the central role of intercession, since intercession is afunction of each of these offices.
ThusGod’s initiative in intercession is intensified in the NT:God’s self-giving through Christ is the foundation of anongoing heavenly intercession that in turn gives the church increasedconfidence to intercede boldly. Further, God’s Spirit helps usin our weakness by interceding for us in accord with God’swill, even if we experience that intercession as “wordlessgroans” (Rom. 8:26–28).
A brook or wadi east of the Jordan River where the prophetElijah found refuge from King Ahab and Jezebel after he prophesied adrought. At this brook he was provided with water, and ravens came toprovide food (1Kings 17:3–7). After Kerith dried up,Elijah went to Zarephath and stayed with a widow there. Possiblelocations proposed for Kerith include the Wadi Qelt above Jericho andthe Wadi Yabis, but there is no consensus.
A region generally identified with the landmass betweenancient Syria and Egypt, including parts of the Sinai Peninsula,Palestine from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean, and southernPhoenicia (modern Lebanon). Although there is some discussion aboutthe origin of the name “Canaan” and its meaning, the nameapparently arises from the primary inhabitants of the region prior toJoshua’s incursion into the land, since it is primarily used inconnection with the phrase “the land of,” indicating thatthe descendants of Canaan possess it. Because the identity of theland of Canaan was linked as much to its inhabitants as it was to anysort of fixed borders, the boundaries are identified in various waysthroughout the biblical text. Such descriptions vary from a ratherlimited area of influence (as suggested by Num. 13:29) to a largerland spanning an area from the Euphrates to the Nile (Gen. 15:18;Exod. 23:23). Because of its strategic position as a buffer betweenEgypt and Mesopotamia and between Arabia and the sea, it served as aprimary trading outpost and the location of numerous importanthistorical events both prior to and after Israel’s appearancein the land.
Inthe Bible, the geographical reference “the land of Canaan”finds primary expression, not surprisingly, in Genesis throughJudges. The promise to Abraham that his descendants would inherit theland of the Canaanites (Gen. 15:18–21) is the theological focalpoint of the uses of the term “Canaan” throughout thesebiblical books. Once that inheritance was achieved and Israel becamea viable state, the term’s use seems to serve the doublepurpose of being both a geographical marker and a reminder of thenature of its former predominant inhabitants. The prophets drew uponthe term to remind Israel of the land’s former status, both inits positive (Isa. 19:18) and negative (Isa. 23:11; Zeph. 2:5)connotations. The term is transliterated twice in the NT in therecounting of OT history (Acts 7:11; 13:19). One further connectionbetween Canaan and the perspectives communicated concerning it in theOT is the apparent association of the land with corrupt tradepractices. That is, while some believe that the word “Canaan”always meant “merchant” or some similar word, its use inScripture suggests that the tradesmen of Canaan were of suchdisrepute in the recollection of ancient Israel that the term becamea synonym for “unjust trader” (Job 41:6; Ezek. 16:29;17:4; Zeph. 1:11; Zech. 14:21).
History
Theproximity of Canaan to Egypt meant that from its earliest periods itfound itself beholden to the pharaohs of Egypt. The EgyptianExecration texts from the Old Kingdom era tell of Egypt’sinfluence over Canaan in the early second millennium. After theexpulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, the pharaohs of the New Kingdomasserted their control over the land. Most famous among these recordsis Thutmose III’s account of his defeat of Megiddo throughthe implementation of both cunning and skill. This same pharaoh wouldestablish a system of dividing Canaan and its inhabitants fortaxation and administration that would be so successful that Solomonwould reimplement the same system during his reign (1 Kings4:7–19). Even in the weaker days of Egypt following the NewKingdom, pharaohs such as Necho and Shishak and their successors thePtolemies would often seek to revisit the days of glory in campaignsinto Canaan.
Inaddition to Egypt, other outside forces found their way into Canaanand exerted influence on its development. The earliest settlers seemto have come from Mesopotamia, and Semitic influence is witnessed asearly as 3000 BC. In the period between Egypt’s control ofCanaan during the Old Kingdom and its later reassertion afterexpelling the Hyksos, Canaan witnessed a massive influx of Amoritesfrom the north and also incursions by the Hittites and the Hurrians.As Egypt’s power waned toward the end of the New Kingdom, thePhilistines came in from the sea and the Israelites from across theJordan. All these societies were absorbed into the Canaanite cultureor were themselves modified by the Canaanites. Israelite success inremoving mention of the Canaanites as an identifiable entity wouldnot be firmly established until late in the eighth century underHezekiah.
Thestory of Israel’s predominance in the area of Canaan begins, ofcourse, with the infiltration into the land under Joshua and persistsuntil the fall of the temple in AD 70 at the hands of the Romans.During that period, Canaan endured as a place of importance as astaging ground for controlling both Mesopotamia and Egypt andtherefore witnessed campaigns by most of the great leaders ofAssyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Of course, with eachcampaign came alterations in both the political and the culturallandscape of the land and reinforcement of the view that the area wasthe center of the world. Indeed, it is in Canaan, in the JezreelValley, that Scripture turns its focus for the final battle betweenGod and the forces of Satan at Armageddon.
Geographyand Climate
Geography.Though small in scope, the region of Canaan encompassed asurprisingly wide variety of environments. Within its topography onecould find perilous deserts, snow-capped mountains, thick forests,lush plains, coastal beaches, rugged hills, deep valleys, andseparate water sources full of both life and minerals. The Shephelah,or coastal plain, lacks any natural harbor areas that would have ledto the early exploitation of the Mediterranean in the south that isso well known in the northern areas of Phoenicia. It does, however,provide wide-open, fertile areas fed by the rain runoff from thecentral hill country, which allowed it to be a useful source offarming and civilization from a very early period.
Thecentral hill country is essentially a ridge that runs parallel to thecoast and undulates in elevation from the mountainous north to therugged but less elevated regions of the south. This ridge served as anatural barrier against travel from west to east, so it is notsurprising that important military towns such as Hazor cropped up inplaces where valleys in this ridge allowed travelers to move from thecoast to the inland regions as necessary to reach Mesopotamia fromEgypt. One such valley of significance through the history of theland of Canaan is the Esdraelon or Jezreel Valley. It provides a wideswath of land that moves from Akko in the west ( justnorth of the Carmel Range) to the Sea of Galilee in the east, withaccess points in the north and south. Within this valley weresettlements such as Megiddo and Hazor in earlier times, and Nazarethand Tiberias in later times.
Alongthe eastern edge of the central hill country is the Jordan RiftValley. The elevation drops dramatically from cities in the hillcountry, such as Jerusalem at about 2,500 feet above sea level, tocities in the valley, such as Jericho at about 1,000 feet below sealevel, within the span of about fifteen miles. The valley itself ispart of a much larger rift that starts in southeast Turkey andcontinues all the way to Mozambique in Africa. Waters from snowyMount Hermon and a couple of natural springs feed into the Sea ofGalilee and then flow into the Jordan River, which snakes its waydown into the Dead Sea. The lands around the Jordan River were oncevery fertile in the north and probably included abundant forests andwildlife. Toward the south of the Jordan River, one approaches thewilderness surrounding the Dead Sea, a region well known for itsmineral contents.
Thesouthernmost section of Canaan, known as the Negev, is an unforgivingregion with mountains, deserts, and interspersed oases throughout. Itopens up into the Arabian Desert to the east and the Sinai Peninsulato the southwest. Its primary cities of importance in biblical timeswere Beersheba and Raphia. As the gateway from Egypt to Canaan, theNegev played a significant role in biblical history.
Climate.The climate of Canaan played a significant role in its religion andhistory. It is generally recognized that climate change played arather momentous role in population movements by nomads, indestabilization of powerful governments, and in the capability, orlack thereof, of nations to participate in the trade that was at theheart of Canaan’s growth, spread of influence, and success.Within Canaan itself, because the natural water sources were on thewrong side of the central hill country, most of its water came fromrainfall. It is not surprising, therefore, that many of thediscussions that take place in both Canaanite and Israelite religiousexpressions concerning the power of their gods found utterance interms of a god’s ability to grant rain (see 1 Kings17–18). The rainy season began in October and typicallycontinued through April. The other months of the year witnessedlittle or no rainfall. Although in a temperate zone within which onemight expect high temperatures, the coastal plains were keptrelatively cool by winds coming in off the sea. The coastal mountainareas, such as Carmel, were the most likely to receive rainfall, sowhen they were without it, all the land suffered (Amos 1:2).
Cultureand Politics
Thehistory of Canaan begins with an archaeological record that travelsback into the first signs of human settlement anywhere in the world.Such early attestation exists within the confines of Palestine itselfat Jericho and Megiddo, both sites of natural springs that would haveattracted settlers. The pre-Israelite civilizations of Canaan arewell attested during the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BC). Theirculture as represented in the art and architecture of the landdemonstrates a developed people who were metropolitan in taste andgifted in style. Furthermore, because of the placement of the landbetween Egypt and Mesopotamia and the numerous incursions by outsideforces throughout its history, Canaan reveals a people with a hightolerance for change and a willingness to absorb other viewpointsinto their perspectives and practice. Archaeological finds reveal amixture of Egyptian, Sumerian, Amorite, Hittite, and Akkadianinfluences in their literature, material wealth, and religion.
Thoughunified in terms of a worldview and religious expression, the peopleof Canaan were politically committed to independent expressions oftheir power and influence. The greater cities seem to have served ashubs around which smaller communities and cities organized andremained separate from each other. The Amarna letters of thefourteenth century BC reveal leaders who did not trust each other andwho sought the Egyptian pharaoh’s favor as they vied forposition and strength. As one would expect, different city-statesheld more sway in different eras. Ebla flourished in the period of2500–2000 BC and then again around 1800 BC. Likewise, Byblosflourished in the period of 2500–1300 BC. It is in the MiddleBronze Age (2200–1550 BC) that cities more directly involvedwith the biblical narrative started to flourish. For instance,Jerusalem, Jericho, Hazor, and Megiddo reached their height of powerand influence around 1700–1500 BC, and each of these ismentioned in various texts of the time that give us some insight intoCanaan’s role in the greater political history. It isUgarit/Ras Shamra, which flourished in 1400–1200 BC, however,that has granted us the greatest amount of textual knowledge andinformation about the religion and literature of Canaan.
Religion
Theexcavations of Ras Shamra (beginning in 1929), and the accompanyingdiscovery of its archive of clay tablets, granted modern scholars aperspective into Canaanite religion that had been hinted at in thebiblical text but previously had remained somewhat of a mystery. Thetablets themselves date between 1400 and 1200 BC. They reveal ahighly developed religion with identifiable, well-defined deities.These deities represent religious practice and thought in the regionthat go back to at least 2000 BC, and the Mesopotamian religions theyare dependent on go back well beyond that.
Canaanitedeities.Theprimary gods identified in the text include El, Baal, Asherah (atUgarit, Athirat), Anath (at Ugarit, Anat), and Ashtoreth (at Ugarit,Astarte). El was the supreme Canaanite deity, though in popular usethe people of Canaan seem to have been more interested in Baal.
Therelationship between the Canaanite use of the name “El”for their supreme god and Israel’s use of the same in referenceto its own God (Gen. 33:20; Job 8:3; Pss. 18:31, 33, 48; 68:21) issomething that biblical authors used at various points in theirwritings (Ps. 81:9–10; Nah. 1:2), never in the sense ofassociating the two as one and the same, but solely for the purposeof distinguishing their God, Yahweh, from any associations with thedescriptions and nature of the Canaanite El (Exod. 34:14).Practically speaking, the coincidence probably resulted from the factthat the Hebrew word ’el had a dual intent in its common usage,similar to the way a modern English speaker will sometimes use “god”as either a common or a proper noun.
Like“El,” the term “Baal” had a dual function inits use. Because the word means “master” or “lord,”the people of Canaan could apply “Baal” to either thesingular deity of the greater pantheon or to individual gods of amore local variety. Local manifestations included Baal-Peor,Baal-Hermon, Baal-Zebul, and Baal-Meon. The OT acknowledges themultiplicity of Baals in some places (Judg. 2:11; 3:7; 1 Sam.7:4) but also seems to allude to a singular ultimate Baal (1 Kings18; 2 Kings 21:3), called “Baal-Shamen” or“Baal-Hadad” elsewhere. The fact that Baal was recognizedin the Ugaritic texts as the god of the thunderbolt adds aninteresting insight to the struggle on Mount Carmel, in which onewould suppose that had he been real, the one thing he should havebeen able to do was bring fire down from the sky; but he could not(1 Kings 18). Recognition that the term “Baal” couldrefer to a number of gods or to one ultimate god may also help oneunderstand the syncretism that took place in Israel between Yahwehand Baal addressed by the prophet Hosea (Hos. 2:16). To the commonperson who recognized the multiplicity of the term “Baal”and yet also heard of his supremacy, the assignment of the name toYahweh and the resulting combining that would occur would seem anatural progression, though still sinful in the eyes of God.
Thesynthesis of Baal and Yahweh is demonstrated in Scripture as being atemptation from national Israel’s earliest encounters withBaalism. The events at Peor (Num. 25) demonstrate a propensity towardthis type of activity, but the confusion between Yahweh and Baalbecame strongest once Israel entered into the land. Gideon had asecond name, “Jerub-Baal” (Judg. 6:32), and the peoplethemselves worshiped Baal-Berith (“Baal of the covenant”)as an indication that they believed their covenant to be with Baal,not Yahweh. Saul, Jonathan, and David all had sons named for Baal:Esh-Baal, Merib-Baal, and Beeliada respectively. Jeroboam I madethe connection even more explicit in his setting of shrines at Danand Bethel with the golden calves that were common icons for Baal inthe era, but that he apparently viewed as being appropriaterepresentations of Yahweh. By the time of the prophets, suchconfusion evidently was entrenched into the very heart of both Israeland Judah; however, Yahweh was able to utilize the false assessmentsof his character to clarify his true character and ultimately bringIsrael back to him.
Asherahwas the wife of El in Ugaritic mythology, but apparently because ofBaal’s accessibility and ubiquitous nature, she was ultimatelygiven to Baal as a consort among Canaanites in the south. Apparently,her worship was also linked to trees, and the mentioning of “Asherahpoles” (Exod. 34:13; Deut. 7:5; Judg. 6:25) in Scripturesuggests that such a linkage had been stylized into representativetrees at sacred locations. Asherah had prophets (1 Kings 18:19)and specific instruments of worship in Israel (2 Kings 23:4) andbecame so ensconced in practice and thought that her form often wasreplicated in the form of items known as Asherim. The previouslymentioned synthesis between Baal and Yahweh seems also to have foundexpression regarding Asherah within Israel. At Kuntillet Ajrud afamous graffito reads “Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah.”This example of the people granting a consort to Yahweh is yetanother instance where the biblical revelation is so distinct amongsurrounding cultures because of the absence of such imagery regardingGod.
Anathwas understood as both Baal’s sister and his lover in Canaanitemythology. Given her apparent replacement in the thought of thesouthern Canaanite tribes by Asherah, it is not surprising that theonly place we find Anath mentioned is in appellations, such as “BethAnath” (lit., “the house of Anath” [Josh. 19:38;Judg. 1:33]). She also seems to have played a role in the tone ofBaal worship in that she functioned as a goddess of both warfare andsexuality. Her portrayal in Ugaritic texts and in inscriptions fromEgypt suggests a lasciviousness that has become the definingcharacteristic of Canaanite worship and also seems to be at thecenter of the methodology implemented by Hosea to reach Israel, whichhad become ensnarled in a similar outlook regarding Yahweh (Hos.1–3).
Thedescriptions of Ashtoreth at Ugarit portray her in much the samelight as Anath. Some cultures such as Egypt and later Syria seem tohave even melded them together into one being. Whether this combiningwas a part of the Israelite conceptions is difficult to determine,although such a combination may explain why only Ashtoreth ismentioned in the biblical text as an individual deity and not Anath.In any case, Ashtoreth apparently was a primary figure in thecorruption of worship during the reign of Solomon (1 Kings 11:5,33; 2 Kings 23:13).
Summary.By the time the Israelites entered the land, they found a religionthat was already well established and accustomed to absorbing variousviewpoints into its expression and practice. Additionally, they founda religion that catered to the more base and animalistic tendenciesto which all humanity is drawn since the fall. The commonality ofsuch practices among almost all ancient cultures serves as a potentreminder of the distinctiveness and power of the biblical worldview.The narratives, poems, and prophetic oracles of the OT demonstrate aknowledge of these beliefs and an acknowledgment of their place inthe lives of everyday Israelites, but they never demonstrate asubmission to them in their portrayal of the true God and hisexpectations of his people.
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
Divine pronouncements given to humankind that are eitherunsolicited (Isa. 7:3–9; Hag. 1:2–11; Zech. 12:1) or aresponse to an inquiry (2Kings 8:8). It was common practicethroughout the ancient Near East to seek pronouncements from deitiesand to identify holy sites where sacred individuals could query thedeities (e.g., the shrine of Apollo at Delphi). How much time elapsedbetween the transmission of an oracle and its inscription isuncertain. Inscriptions from the surrounding Near Eastern milieuattest that messages received from a deity often were transcribedimmediately upon reception, with the prophet’s name attached.
Receptionand Delivery of Oracles
TheHebrew word massa’ (derived from nasa’, “to lift,take, carry”), variously translated “oracle” (Isa.17:1; 19:1; 21:1; 30:6), “burden” (Isa. 17:1 JPS, KJV),or “prophecy” (Prov. 30:1; 31:1 KJV), is used in thisfigurative sense primarily in prophetic speech (Prov. 30:1; 31:1 arethe exceptions) to refer to threatening pronouncements against Israel(Hab. 1:1; Zech. 12:1; Mal. 1:1), its neighbors (Isa. 13:1; 14:28;15:1; Nah. 1:1), or an individual (2Kings 9:25; 2Chron.24:27). Although the word itself is used infrequently, the propheticactivity of delivering divine pronouncements was prevalent throughoutIsrael’s history, rising in prominence during the monarchy andceasing at the beginning of the intertestamental period.
Priests,judges (Deut. 17:9), and prophets (1Sam. 9:9) could be therecipients and deliverers of divine oracles, although as the dutiesof these offices became more differentiated over time, delivery oforacles became more the province of the prophet (2Kings22:11–14; Jer. 21:2). A few oracles found in the OT areattributed to non-Israelites (Balaam [Num. 22–24]; Agur [Prov.30:1]; King Lemuel [Prov. 31:1]). The Israelites were commanded toseek Yahweh (Isa. 55:6; Hos. 10:12), and they (Isa. 9:13) and theirleaders (Jer. 10:21) were condemned both for failure to do so and fortheir dismissive response to a prophetic oracle once it had beendelivered, whether solicited (Ezek. 33:30–32) or not (Zech.7:12).
Prophetswere often sought to inquire about obtaining an oracle (1Sam.9:9; 2Kings 3:11; 22:13) during times of crisis or need. Suchoracles were for the benefit of either an individual (Exod. 18:15;2Kings 8:8) or the nation (1Kings 22:5; 2Kings3:11; 2Chron. 18:6) and were sought by commoners (Gen. 25:22;Exod. 18:15; Ezek. 33:30), elders (Ezek. 14:1–3; 20:1; see also8:1), royalty (1Kings 14:5; 22:5–8; 2Kings 22:18;2Chron. 26:5), army officials (Jer. 42:1–3), andforeigners (2Kings 8:7; Isa. 14:32). Prophetic response tooracular inquiry was not automatic. Deliverance of an oracle after aninquiry could be immediate (Jer. 37:17), delayed for an extendedperiod of time (Jer. 42:7 [ten days]), or the prophet could refuse todeliver an oracle (Jer. 23:33; Ezek. 14:1). A previous oracle couldbe superseded (Isa. 38 [compare v.1 with vv. 4–6]).Various commodities could be used for payment, including silver(1Sam. 9:7–8), food (1Kings 14:3), and foreigngoods (2Kings 8:7–9).
Oraclescould be pronounced publicly in various places, including the palace(2Kings 20:4–5), the temple (Jer. 7:2; 26:2), the citygates (1Kings 22:10; 2Chron. 18:9), the roadside (1Kings20:38–43), or privately to individuals, including royalty (Jer.37:17), officials (Isa. 22:15), and foreigners (Jer. 39:15–17).There are several mentions in Scripture of oracles that are not partof the canonical record (e.g., 2Chron. 24:27).
Oracularpronouncements could be brief (1Kings 17:1) or lengthy (thebooks of Nahum and Malachi), and they consisted of a variety ofgenres, including satire (Isa. 44:9–20), parable (2Sam.12:1–14), and lament (Jer. 9:20; Ezek. 19; Amos 5:1), toproduce the desired rhetorical effect. The prophetic introductory orconcluding oracular formulas “thus says the Lord” and“declares the Lord” echo the messenger terminology of thebroader culture, in which a similar introductory “thus saysX”was used by messengers delivering public proclamations on behalf ofthe one who commissioned them (2Chron. 36:23). In this way, theprophet presented an oracle as God’s message to the people, nothis own.
NominalIsrael was condemned for seeking pronouncements from false gods(2Kings 1:3–4, 6, 16; 2Chron. 25:15; Hos. 4:12),necromancy (Isa. 8:19), and failure to inquire of the true God ofIsrael (Zeph. 1:6). False prophets could also claim to have receivedcommunication from God (Deut. 13:1–11; 18:20; Ezek. 13), butthey were indicted for delivering their own message without divinesanction (Jer. 23:34–39; 28; Lam. 2:14; Ezek. 13), turning thepeople away from the true God to worship false gods (Deut. 13:1–11)and delivering oracular pronouncements in order to enjoy personalpleasure (Mic. 2:11) and gain (Jer. 6:13–15; 8:10–12).
OftenScripture simply notes that a prophet received a “word of theLord” (Jer. 1:2; Hos. 1:1; Joel 1:1; cf. Isa. 14:28; Hab. 1:1)without explicitly stating the means by which the divinepronouncement was received. The prophetic witness mentions bothseeing (Isa. 1:1; 13:1; Amos 8:1; Hab. 1:1) and hearing (Ezek.1:24–25, 28) divine communication, but what actually happenedto the prophet is not easily determined. The references to the Spiritcoming upon an individual (Num. 11:25; 24:2; 1Sam. 10:6, 10;Ezek. 8:1; 11:5; 37:1) point to some sort of divine intervention thatseized the prophet’s consciousness in such a way as to preparethe prophet for a revelation from God.
Prophetswere known to have ecstatic or visionary experiences that marked themas operating under divine influence. In addition, several of theprophets (Isa. 20; Jer. 13:1–11; Ezek. 5:1–4) acted outdemonstrations (sign-acts) as part of their oracular ministry. Theseecstatic experiences and peculiar actions offended many of theircontemporaries (2Kings 9:11; Jer. 29:26; Hos. 9:7). Thesephenomena were concentrated around the two great crises faced byIsrael: the demise of the northern kingdom in 722 BC and of thesouthern kingdom in 586 BC. Having been given warning that nationaljudgment was imminent, these prophets were led to augment theirpreaching with dramatizations in order to convey more persuasively tothe audience the urgency of heeding their message (Ezek. 12:8–11).
Typesof Oracles
Formcritics have identified three main types of prophetic oracles:oracles of salvation, judgment, and repentance. The first is furtherdivided into subcategories: individual salvation oracles (1Kings17:8–16) and community salvation oracles (1Sam. 7:3–15).The prophets, however, were not tightly bound to the traditionalforms, and they demonstrated great creativity in modifying the formsto fit their personal style and the situation before them.
Thesevarious types of oracles were not arbitrary pronouncements; they werefounded on Israel’s covenantal relationship with Yahweh (Jer.34:18). The prophets served as covenant prosecutors, and theiroracles were part of the prosecution’s case on behalf of Yahwehagainst the people. Behavior, whether an individual’s or thenation’s, was evaluated in light of the demands of thecovenant. So too, Yahweh’s response—judgment orsalvation—was cast in terms of his faithfulness to thecovenant(s) that he made with Israel.
Salvationoracles announced Yahweh’s glorious deliverance andrestoration, mostly in response to the catastrophe of 586 BC (Ezek.11:16–21; 36:24–38; 37:15–28; Amos 9:11–15;Zeph. 3:14–20), and they could include in thesalvificpronouncement the destruction of the enemy (Zeph. 3:19). They oftenopen with the formulaic “in that day” (Amos 9:11; Mic.4:6), focusing Israel’s attention on a future time when all itsenemies would be subdued and covenantal blessings would beestablished and enjoyed by the redeemed community.
Judgmentoracles typically were introduced with an interjection, oftentranslated into English as “woe,” followed by a formaladdress and accusation accompanied by an announcement of thepunishment to be inflicted (Isa. 1:4; 5:8, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22; Jer.22:13; Ezek. 34:2). These oracles could take the form of a lawsuit.In Isa. 1:2 “heaven and earth” are summoned as witnesses,harking back to Deut. 30:19; 31:28; 32:1, where these elements ofnature were invoked by Moses to be witnesses of God’s covenantwith Israel. Some oracles state explicitly that a case has beenbrought against the people (Isa. 3:13; Jer. 2:9; Hos. 4:1; 12:2; Mic.6:1–2).
Repentanceoracles specifically summon the addressee to repentance and arecommitment to the covenant in order to avoid destruction (Isa.31:6; Jer. 4:1; Hos. 12:6).
Meansof Oracles
Variousobjects were sanctioned for use in discerning God’s will.Scripture is silent on many of the details regarding the manipulationof these objects, but the validity of their use for discerning thedivine will is not questioned. The mysterious Urim and Thummim, twostonelike objects kept in the high priest’s breastpiece, appearto have operated to give a “yes or no” response (Exod.28:30; Lev. 8:8; Deut. 33:8; 1Sam. 14:41), though sometimesthere is no response at all (1Sam. 28:6). The ephod, some sortof two-piece linen apron or loin cloth worn by priests under thebreastpiece (Exod. 28:4, 6; 1Sam. 23:9–12; 1Sam.30:7–8; but note that Samuel was wearing one as he assisted thehigh priest Eli [1Sam. 2:18], and David, as he led theprocession returning the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem [2Sam.6:14]), was also pressed into service for discerning God’swill. Another method, the casting of lots, is shrouded in mystery.This method was used to determine the scapegoat on the Day ofAtonement (Lev. 16:8–10), the guilty party in the loss at Ai(Josh. 7:14), land allotment in Canaan (Josh. 14–19; 21),priestly assignments in the temple (1Chron. 24:5; 25:8; 26:13),residency in Jerusalem in the postexilic community (Neh. 11:1), theday to massacre the Jews in Persia as plotted by Haman (Esther 3:7;9:24), and dividing the Messiah’s clothing (Ps. 22:18; cf. John19:24).
Oraclesagainst the Foreign Nations
Aspecial group of oracles are those addressed to Israel’shistoric enemies, commonly referred to as “oracles against the[foreign] nations.” Blocks of these oracles are found in Amos1–2; Isa. 13–23; Jer. 46–51; Ezek. 25–32 andthe entire books of Nahum and Obadiah. These oracles were addressedto a specific foreign nation (the putative audience) but were heardby Israel. During a time when most people’s conception of deitywas tied to a specific land, these oracles maintained that Yahweh wassovereign over the whole earth, and that his purposes included allhumankind. All the nations do his bidding. These oracles were to beunderstood against the backdrop of Israel’s infidelity toYahweh and its futile reliance on the support of foreign nations. Theoracles demonstrated that Yahweh would bring down all that washaughty and would order events so that he alone would be high andexalted in the day of his coming. Those nations that cursed Israelwould themselves be cursed (Gen. 12:1–3; 27:29).
NewTestament Usage
Inthe NT, “oracle” (Gk. logion) occurs four times, alwaysin the plural (logia [NIV: “words”]). It refers to theMosaic law (Acts 7:38) and unspecified portions of revelation (Rom.3:2; Heb. 5:12; 1Pet. 4:11).
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
The name “Phoenicia” probably comes from theGreek word phoinix, meaning “purple red.” This namederived from the famous purple red dye made from the murex snail thatwas produced in this region. The evidence shows that the Phoenicianswere primarily sea traders and artists.
Thegeographical and chronological boundaries for Phoenicia areimprecise, in part because the term “Phoenician” is notmentioned before Homer. In Homer the inhabitants of Sidon are called“Phoenicians,” but it is possible that the term may firstoccur in Mycenaean LinearB texts of the thirteenth century BC.Based on the written records, it is safe to assume that the heartlandof Phoenicia was along the coastal regions of modern-day Lebanon,extending to parts of Syria and Israel.
InOT times the territory occupied by the Phoenicians was called“Canaan” by the Israelites (Isa. 23:11), “Canaanite”(Heb. kena’an means “merchant”) being the nameapplied by the inhabitants to themselves (Gen. 10:18). It isimportant to note that this self-designation is found as late as thesecond century BC on coins minted in Beirut (“Laodicea, whichis in Canaan”). However, since Phoenicia was usually formed ofindependent city-states, it was common practice in all periods torefer to Phoenicia by the name of one of its principal cities(Gubla/Byblos, Tyre, Sidon).
Theorigin of the Phoenicians is obscure, but the earliest archaeologicalevidence for their presence comes from the “proto-Phoenician”finds at Byblos (ancient Gubla/Gebel [see Ezek. 27:9]) dated toaround 3000 BC. There is also plenty of evidence of trade andcorrespondence with Egypt during the Bronze Age periods.
Bythe time of David, Tyre was ruled by HiramI, whose reign begana golden age. Phoenicia became allied commercially with David (2Sam.5:11; 1Kings 5:1), and Hiram supplied Solomon with wood, stone,and craftsmen for the construction of the temple and Solomon’spalace (1Kings 5:1–12; 2Chron. 2:3–16). Shipsand navigators from Phoenicia were sent to assist the Judean fleetand to develop the port of Ezion Geber as a base for commerce(1Kings 9:27). Phoenicia, itself long influenced by Egyptianart, motifs, and methods, was now in a position to influenceIsraelite art.
Duringthe ninth and eighth centuries BC, the Phoenicians expanded into thewestern Mediterranean and founded colonies in Sardinia, Sicily, NorthAfrica, and Iberia. Alexander the Great captured Tyre in the fourthcentury BC, and the slaughter and destruction were extreme, but thecity recovered and, like Sidon, was still prosperous in Hellenisticand Roman times (see, e.g., Matt. 11:21–22; Acts 12:20).
Phoenicianreligion had a pantheon that differed from city to city and from oneage to the next. Nature and fertility deities predominated. Thefollowing were their chief deities: Baal, Astarte, Eshmun, Adonis,Melqart, and Tanit (more popular in North Africa). Baal, the chiefgod of Tyre and Sidon, was at times the leading rival to Yahwehworship in Israel (1Kings 16:29–22:18), and his consortwas Astarte.
ThePhoenicians spoke a Northwest Semitic language closely related toHebrew and Aramaic, and according to Herodotus, the Phoeniciansintroduced the alphabet to Greece. The Phoenician alphabetic scriptis similar to early Hebrew and Aramaic scripts from the firstmillennium BC.
(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, andillness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing wasalso the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agentsincluded the prophets (1Kings 17:8–23; 2Kings5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), andmiraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign ofGod’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could senddisease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
TheBible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and theirsymptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe thesymptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often wasbased on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. TheBible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of aperson. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
AncientNear Eastern Influences
Inthe ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine wasprecritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and otherbotanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physiciansalso administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Diseasewas considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo orpossession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes lawsregulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. InEgypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintingsand several papyrus documents describe the developing state ofEgyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greekphysicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with beingthe first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divineforces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result ofenvironmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishmentimposed by the gods.
Itis clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near Eastthe same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropicalclimates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, andsunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequentdroughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types ofdiseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must beremembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamianand Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
BiblicalConcept of Disease
Thereligious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonicorigin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factorsregulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual aswell as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, alsorecognized that much sickness arose from the individual’srelationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed onhygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchallegislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to preventthe possibility of disease and sickness: (1)Sabbath observancefor humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods ofrest (Gen. 2:3); (2)dietary regulations, which divided foodinto efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);(3)circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well asreligious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the onlyexample of Hebrew surgery); (4)laws governing sexualrelationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees ofmarital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5)provisions forindividual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6)stipulations forcleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitaryand hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
InNT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folkremedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.He also suggested that sickness and disease were not directpunishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standardsof the new covenant promoted the total health of the community andthe individual.
CirculatoryDiseases
Nabalmost likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1Sam.25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsedinto a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may containa clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “IfI forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May mytongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that resultfrom a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiledpsalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he heldanything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some haveconsidered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize theark of the covenant (2Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequenceof an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was describedand death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is moreprobable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or acoronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
Apossible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled(atrophic) hand of JeroboamI (1Kings 13:4–6). In anangry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemnedthe altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example ofcataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotionalstimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding ofthe emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
Thethreat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, orlocomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindnesscharacterize this disease.
Paralysisis frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these casesremains uncertain.
Thephysician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused bychronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of theseexamples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writersregarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostlesas miraculous.
MentalIllness and Brain Disorders
Casesof mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting thesymptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mentalillness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit orspirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’scontrol and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him(1Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT“madness” and “confusion of mind” wereregarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,34).
Ithas been argued that King Saul displayed early indications ofpersonality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement(1Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s charactertranspired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense ofpersecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that hesuffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzarsuffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beastin the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save hisown life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistineking Achish (1Sam. 21:12–15).
Inthe NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilatedthemselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demonpossession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mutedemoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive ofparanoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, themind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannotbe ruled out.
Epilepsy(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foamat the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to theground in an ecstatic state (1Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaamfalling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. Inthe NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Somescholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascuswith the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. Hissubsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epilepticdisturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
ChildhoodDiseases
Thecause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown(1Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’sson has been attributed to sunstroke (2Kings 4:18–37),although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v.19). Inboth cases there is too little evidence to present an accuratediagnosis.
Inthe first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1Kings17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijahresuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearlystates that the Shunammite boy died (2Kings 4:20), implying aresurrection.
Infectiousand Communicable Diseases
Feverand other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantalinfidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may beintentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesusand Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these feverswere likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to beendemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Severalepidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague arementioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). Thefifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed toJordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plaguehas been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1Sam.5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form oftropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in themilitary camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic thatkilled a large number of the Assyrian army (2Kings 19:35).
ParasiticDiseases
Somescholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and thechildren of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestationof the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopicfleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slendernematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract tothe skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the hostoccurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
Afterthe conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who wouldendeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethelattempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result ofthe curse (1Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify thebad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2Kings2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and therebymaking the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological studyhas discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks usedto construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are nowknown to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite thatcan cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematodeinfects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that thistype of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s twosons.
InNT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of aparasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten byworms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The fatherof Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
PhysicalDeformities and Abnormalities
Individualswith deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, anddwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenitalor acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) andperhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustainedinjury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity anda limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar toscoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveledhand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could becongenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number offactors.
Diseasesand Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physicalblindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excludedone from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness anddeafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from thecommunity (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” ofLeah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindnessin the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably wereresponsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud madefrom spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healeda blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.20:34 with Mark10:52).
Congenitaldeafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defectsbecause a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss ofhearing early in life.
SkinConditions
Variousskin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made theindividual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “theboils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailmentsincluded tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), blackpeeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). Thesesymptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. Apoultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2Kings20:7).
Leprosywas once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronicinfectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss ofsensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type ofdisease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case ofHansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died(2Chron. 26:21).
Scholarsnow suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bibledo not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’sdisease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that Englishversions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, oftencharacterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associatedwith peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points moretoward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
Thisdisease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), andon clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but couldoccur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but itwas also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2Kings 5:1–27). Individualswith the disease were not necessarily shunned (2Kings 7; Matt.26:6// Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), andNaaman experienced this type of skin disease (2Kings 5:1–27).Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “menwho had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailmentsof an Unknown Nature
Somecases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars torender a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet(2Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexualorgans (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of thedisease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurabledisease of the bowels” (2Chron. 21:18–19). Otherunknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of Davidand Bathsheba (2Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy(1Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2Kings 13:14), and ofEzekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
Christ’s resurrection is the foundational event for theChristian faith. Paul goes so far as to say that if Christ did notrise, then the Christian faith is futile and Christians are to bepitied more than all others (1Cor. 15:17–19).Resurrection’s climaxing position in all four Gospel narrativesyields the same understanding. Christ came not merely to die, as someclaim, but to conquer death. Resurrection gives everything thatChrist did before his death an “of God” significance, andit establishes everything that follows as a guarantee of God’seschatological promises. Without the resurrection, Jesus would havebeen just another “prophet hopeful” who died a tragicpeasant death in Jerusalem. However, as it is, evidenced by theresurrection, he is the Son of God. According to the NT, theresurrection is the triumphant cry that God indeed did come to visithis creation and conquer the power of sin and death.
OldTestament
Resurrectionhope is poorly attested by the OT, especially in earlier sections.References are made to death that seem to indicate that the dead havenot ceased to exist, but such passages refer (at best) to death as ashadowy, nonlife existence (Job 26:5; Ps. 88:10; Ezek. 32:21). Whenearly OT texts suggest that certain individuals experienceeverlasting life, they do so by escaping death altogether. Enoch(Gen. 5:24) walked with God and was simply taken away, while Goddramatically picked up Elijah in a chariot of fire (2Kings2:11). Saul’s attempt at Endor to reawaken Samuel from death toreceive his counsel (1Sam. 28:3–14) speaks more to thesuperstition and disobedience of Saul than it does to Israel’sfaith in life after death.
SomeOT prophetic texts hint at a corporate restoration of life beyond thegrave. It is a promise not of resurrection from death to life for theindividual but of God’s unceasing love for corporate Israelthat ultimately results in the redemption of his people from thesnares of death (Hos. 6:1–3; 13:14). Although these texts aredifficult to separate from Israel’s vision of postexilicnational restoration, as in the vision of the valley of dry bones(Ezek. 37:1–14), they do indicate a growing sense of hope thatGod will restore Israel to renewed life in his presence after death.A similar trend may lie behind Job 14:14, where Job, after affirmingthe finality of individual death (14:12), still raises the questionof a possible life after death. The basis for this notion rests onthe affirmation that the living God, Job’s gracious redeemer,has power over death and will allow Job to see life after death (Job19:25–26; cf. Ps. 16:10).
Daniel12:2, which on the surface looks like a full-fledged teaching onindividual resurrection, still falls short as a beneficial comparisonto the teaching of Jesus. Although the Pharisees (along with a numberof modern interpreters looking for OT foundations for individualresurrection) later used this as a proof text for individualresurrection, its context (Dan. 11) clearly suggests a strugglebetween nations, to which God eventually will reveal his eternaljudgment. God will vindicate his people. Notwithstanding, OT languageof eternal awakening to a new reality, good or bad, opens the doorfor further reflection on God’s eternal purpose and how itrelates to human experience beyond death.
IntertestamentalPeriod
Thespeculations of the intertestamental period portray a vast array ofphilosophical influences that affected the thinking of Second TempleJudaism. The conservative Sadducees, who may have accepted only theTorah as Scripture, understood Sheol (the state or abode of the dead)to be a place of unending sleep and thus denied resurrection (cf.Sir. 17:27–28; 30:17; Acts 23:8). Other groups, such as thePharisees and the Essenes, were to a greater or lesser extentinfluenced by Hellenistic thinking on the relationship between spiritand matter. The lack of unity among these groups, especially thePharisees, created a plethora of understandings concerningresurrection. Some, influenced by the Platonic idea that thesoul/spirit is immortal and will be released at the death of thebody, turned reflections on the afterlife into an issue ofimmortality (4Macc. 14:5; 18:23). Others seem to have affirmeda physical resurrection but restricted it to either Israel or arighteous remnant thereof. This latter perspective easily connectedto the view that all would be raised, the unrighteous for punishment,the righteous for reward and bliss.
Itproves impossible, therefore, to determine to what extent Christianreflections during the first century influenced Jewish writers ratherthan vice versa. Sociologically speaking, the early Christians wereone of the many parties of Judaism developing during that period. Asthe Gospels seem to suggest, they interacted, maybe especially, withthe Pharisees.
NewTestament
TheOT’s relative silence on the issue of resurrection stands instark contrast to the central position that it holds in the NT. Allfour Gospels build their narrative portrayal of Jesus’ ministrytoward this climaxing event, and Jesus himself argued against theview of the Sadducees (Mark 12:18–27). Beyond the Gospelnarratives, Paul makes resurrection the very heart of the Christianfaith (1Cor. 15); Hebrews understands resurrection as part ofChristian elementary teaching (Heb. 6:1–2); James plays on theword “raise” as he explains the connection between faithand strength of life (James 5:15); Peter sees resurrection as thebasis for Christian hope (1Pet. 1:3); Revelation details thequality of the resurrected life (Rev. 21–22). In short, everypart of the NT affirms the reality of a resurrection after death. Itis the climactic evidence that God’s kingdom now dwells amongpeople. God brings life; death will no longer have the last word.
TheGospels.The Gospels give four accounts of raisings from the dead. Strictlyspeaking, these are not resurrections but resuscitations. The peoplein question are not raised to eternal life but rather are broughtback to life in their historical circ*mstances; they will later dieagain. The Gospels’ intertwining of the raising of Jairus’sdaughter with the healing of the hemorrhaging woman (Mark 5:21–43pars.) underscores the conceptual connection between life and God’spresence. First-century Judaism had come up bankrupt and could donothing to help a woman whose bleeding made worship of Godimpossible. Now, however, life could be restored after death. Eventhe leader of the worship center, who could do nothing to help thiswoman, now saw his own daughter raised from the dead.
Theraising of the widow’s son from Nain (Luke 7:11–17)similarly indicates that the days of the prophet Elijah had returned(1Kings 17:8–24). God was again visiting his people andbringing life after death. Most spectacularly, Lazarus’sraising after four days in the grave (John 11:1–44) speaksdirectly to God’s power to bring life out of death inconnection with OT understandings of the afterlife. The emphasis onthe four days in the grave, along with Jesus’ pronouncement ofhimself as “resurrection and life” and his application ofGod’s revelatory name (“I am”) to himself, makethis event stand out as anticipating what is soon to come in full.The same holds true in the unleashing of power at Jesus’ death,when graves spring open and the dead are raised (Matt. 27:51–53).
Paul’sletters.Paul’s teaching on resurrection anchors in eschatology, or viceversa. The reality and finality of death, introduced by Adam’sdisobedience, are now overcome by Christ through his resurrection(1Cor. 15:21–22). Christ’s resurrection evidencesthat God has ended death’s reign; it heralds the imminentcoming of the end, a time when all who belong to Christ will beraised in like manner, and death will be no more (15:23–24).
Althoughat times Paul uses the language of body, soul, and spirit, he neverfalls prey to a Platonic dualism that separates body from soul,claiming that only the body dies while the soul remains immortal(1Tim. 6:15b–16a). Rather, following Hebraic thinking, heunderstands resurrection as total transformation of the whole person,comparing it to what happens to a seed put in the ground. It must diebefore something completely new comes up (1Cor. 15:36). Thepromise of resurrection is the promise that the death-marked humanwho is buried will, at thetime of resurrection, be transformedand suited to live eternally in God’s presence. What is nowperishable will become imperishable (1Cor. 15:42–44). ToPaul, this is not about getting rid of matter (the body) that iscreated by God, but about Christ’s restoration of what Adamdestroyed (1Cor. 15:49). It is the same understanding expressedin Rev. 21:1–5a, where John prophesies the transformation ofboth heaven and earth when God reestablishes his covenantrelationship with his people.
Summary.Although the Gospels’ presentations of Jesus’resurrection vary in some detail (probably due to purpose andaudience), all of them treat the event as the theological centerpieceof the Gospel narrative. The resurrection story launches God’seschatological work and opens the door, as the postresurrectionappearances show, for a connection between the Jesus story and thechurch story. It is the foundation both for the Great Commission(Matt. 28:18–20) and for Pentecost (Luke 24:49). All people ofall nations can now meet the living Christ.
A small Sidonian town (“Sarepta” in Luke 4:26KJV) where a widow served Elijah a meal with all that was left to herhousehold (1Kings 17:7–24). Her faith and God’smiraculous provision for her in return during the three years offamine are contrasted to the Israelites’ lack of faith. At theday of the Lord, God promises that the exiles of Israel will be ableto extend the western border to this town (Obad. 20).
In the OT, an underworld place to which all were destinedafter death. The Hebrew word she’olis generally translated as “the grave” in modern versionsof the Bible, including the NIV. Sheol appears in the OT mostfrequently in songs and prayers (David’s song [2Sam.22:6]; Hannah’s prayer [1Sam. 2:6]; many references inPsalms), as well as in the wisdom books of Job and Proverbs. Theancient Israelites visualized the cosmos as comprised of threedistinct realms: heaven, the realm of the divine; earth, the realm ofhumanity and God’s creation; and Sheol, a place underneath theearth and the seas, the realm of the dead (Job 11:8; 26:5–7).
TheRealm of the Dead
Inthe OT, Sheol is not a place of judgment or of God’s wrath, butrather a realm that harbored those who had died. Sheol was the greatequalizer in the OT, as it was thought to be inhabited not only bythe masses, but also by the rich and powerful (Job 3:19; Isa. 5:14;14:9, 11), the bravest of warriors (Ezek. 32:21), the righteous (Gen.37:35; Isa. 38:10; Ps. 30:3, 9), the wicked (Num. 16:30, 33), indeedeveryone (Ps. 89:48; Eccles. 9:10). Although Sheol itself is not aplace of judgment, it is connected to God’s wrath in the OT.The consequence of God’s wrathful judgment is frequently anearly descent into Sheol (Num. 16:30; 1Kings 2:6; Job 24:19;Ps. 31:17; Isa. 38:10; Ezek. 31:17). Premature death is the result ofGod’s wrath and judgment in the OT, not the descent into Sheol,which itself is inevitable.
Descriptionsof Sheol do not occur in third-person narratives or in legalmaterial, but are found only in first-person speeches throughout theOT. Moreover, Sheol is never described in full detail but is referredto only occasionally. Similar to depictions in other ancient NearEastern cultures, descriptions of Sheol in biblical texts locate itin the farthest depths beneath the earth (Job 11:8; 26:6–13;Ps. 139:8) and the seas (Ezek. 31:15; Jon. 2:4), as contrasted withthe heavens above. Sheol is portrayed as a watery underworld (Ps.69:1–2, 13–15; Jon. 2:6), a place of darkness (Job 17:13;Ps. 88:3, 6, 12), of silence (Pss. 6:5; 31:17; Isa. 38:18), withgates at its entrance (Isa. 38:10; Jon. 2:7). By contrast, Sheol isalso portrayed as a place of peace (1Kings 2:6; Job 21:13), aplace where greetings and conversations might take place (Isa. 14:9),where one would be reunited with a loved one who had already died(Gen. 37:35).
Sheolis a place where the fullness of joy in life no longer abides, forone cannot praise God in Sheol (Ps. 6:5; Isa. 38:18–19).Indeed, the book of Ecclesiastes encourages readers, “Eat yourfood with gladness.... Enjoy life with your wife,whom you love.... For in the realm of the dead[Sheol] ... there is neither working nor planning norknowledge nor wisdom” (9:7–10). In a similar manner, thebook of Sirach in the Apocrypha states that one must fully enjoyone’s earthly life, for no pleasures are to be found in Sheol(14:16). Job, however, views Sheol as a positive alternative to histragedies, and he imagines Sheol to be a peaceful place where earthlystruggles give way to rest, even for the wicked (Job 3:1–19).
Sheoloften is personified along with the figure of Death, particularly inthe prophetic literature and Proverbs. Portrayals of Sheol generallyare synonymous with those of Death and match iconographicrepresentations of the god Death (Motu) in the ancient Near East.Sheol is portrayed as a monster with formidably large jaws (Isa.5:14) and clutching hands (Ps. 89:48; Hos. 13:14), employing plaguesand scourges to slay its victims (Hos. 13:14), as well as snares andtraps (2Sam. 22:6; Ps. 116:3) to feed its insatiable appetite(Prov. 1:12; 27:20; 30:16; Song 8:6; Hab. 2:5).
Sheolis not, however, a place outside the authority and power of Yahweh.Indeed, it is a place that is open to God’s vision (Job 26:6)and within the reach of God’s hand (Amos 9:2). The realm ofSheol is under the purview of God’s authority, and those whodwell there are not separated from God’s presence: “If Igo up to the heavens, you are there; if I make my bed in the depths[Sheol], you are there” (Ps. 139:8). Yet the OT maintains thatone’s life of faith in God is altered in Sheol. According toPs. 6:5, “Among the dead no one proclaims your name. Whopraises you from the grave [Sheol]?” And, indeed, “thosewho go down to the pit cannot hope for your faithfulness” (Isa.38:18). These texts imply that although Yahweh’s presenceremains with those who dwell in Sheol, the dead are unable to respondto God in praise and trust as they did in life.
TheAfterlife and Resurrection
Beliefin the afterlife was common in the ancient Near East. Thus, it isremarkable that the OT is so restrained in the hope that it offersfor life after death. Most OT texts affirm that no one returns fromSheol (Job 7:9; Isa. 38:10, 18; cf. Sir. 48:5). Yet the questionremains open. God’s limitless sovereignty is acknowledged inthe prayer of Hannah: “The Lord brings death and makes alive;he brings down to the grave [Sheol] and raises up” (1Sam.2:6). Thus, Yahweh has the power to raise people up from Sheol, butwhether he will choose to do so is a question unanswered in the OT.
Hintsof resurrection from the grave can be found in the metaphoric use ofSheol in the psalms and the prophetic literature to represent direstruggle and sin from which the psalmist or Israel receives healingand deliverance: “I will deliver this people from the power ofthe grave [Sheol]; I will redeem them from death. Where, O death, areyour plagues? Where, O grave [Sheol], is your destruction?”(Hos. 13:14 [see also Job 14:13; Pss. 16:10–11; 30:2–3;49:13–15; 86:13; Jon. 2:3]). However, it is unclear whetherthese texts portray salvation after descent into Sheol has alreadytaken place or, rather, Yahweh’s deliverance experienced as aprotection from descending into Sheol in the first place. Strongerhints at a bodily resurrection come from the narratives in which theprayers of Elijah and Elisha result in a resurrection from the dead(1Kings 17:17–24; 2Kings 4:17–37).
Whenthe OT was translated into Greek for Hellenized Jewish readers,“Sheol” was translated as “Hades,” importinga similar Greek concept of the underworld into the biblical text. TheNT uses the words “Hades” and “hell”interchangeably; however, the distinction between the grave and hellis maintained. The grave is simply a place to which all are destined,as was Sheol. Thus, it is not until the NT that firmconceptualizations of a place for eternal punishment, as well as aplace of eternal reward, emerge. Jewish literature written betweenthe OT and the NT demonstrates a stronger hope in the resurrection,yet these texts largely parallel the OT usage of Sheol as simply anunderworld abode of the dead. It is not until the coming of Christthat the resurrection from the dead transforms from a glimmer of hopeto a resplendent promise in the Bible.
Sonsof Jacob
Genesis29–30, 35 records the birth of the sons of Jacob, whichprovides a covenantal and family basis for the later confederation ofa dozen independent tribes of Semitic peoples. They shared a commonhistory, culture, religion, and set of traditions that served for atime to bind them together as a single nation. According to thefamily records, the tribes were named after their forebears, who wereborn in the following manner. Jacob’s first (and unloved) wife,Leah, bore Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah, in that order. Then hisbeloved Rachel gave him her maid Bilhah, who bore Dan and Naphtali.Leah’s maid then bore Gad and Asher. Then Leah bore Issacharand Zebulun. Finally, Rachel bore Joseph and Benjamin. At root, thelater history of the tribes is a family history, traceable toAbraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Thus, the story of the tribes begins inthe early second millennium BC.
Genesiswas written at a period considerably after the time of thepatriarchs, and thus written with the awareness that thecharacterizations of the patriarchs reflected in some way thetemperament of the individual tribes. The first story told about theactions of Jacob’s sons is how Simeon and Levi took terriblevengeance on the city of Shechem for the rape of their sister Dinah.This brought about Jacob’s rebuke. Jacob feared that thisaction would bring further retaliation upon his family (Gen. 34). Thehistory of the patriarchs comes to its high point in the story ofJoseph, an account that spans Gen. 37–50. Joseph was thebrother revealed in dreams to be elected by God to rule. Hisbrothers’ jealousy led them to seek to rid themselves of him.Reuben, the firstborn, is characterized as being the responsible one,wanting to do him no harm. But in Reuben’s absence, Judah ledthe others in selling Joseph into slavery. God was with Joseph,however, and through a series of events God made Joseph the leader ofEgypt, fulfilling the prophetic dreams.
Genesisconnects this family story with later tribal history. As propheticdreams revealed Joseph’s destiny to rule over Egypt, Jacob’sblessing in Gen. 49 reveals the destiny of the later tribes. Reubenlost his double-portion inheritance of the firstborn due to hisdishonoring his father (Gen. 35:22). This honor is tacitly conferredon Joseph in Gen. 48. Jacob said that Levi would be dispersed amongIsrael. As the priestly tribe, Levi inherited no land. Judah waspredicted to be the tribe of kings.
Wildernessand Conquest
Inthe wilderness wanderings of Israel, the campsite was organized bytribe (Num. 2). At its center was the tabernacle. The tribe of Leviformed an inner circle that surrounded it. At the entrance to thetabernacle (facing east) were the priests, the sons of Aaron. Theother divisions of Levi were the Merarites, the Gershonites, and theKohathites. These together formed the inner circle that guarded theholy place. Levi was the holiest tribe of Israel, the only tribeallowed to maintain and service God’s dwelling place. The outerperimeter of the encampment was formed by twelve tribes (the tribe ofJoseph counted as two). The eastern front was dominated by Judah andincluded Issachar and Zebulun. Dan, Asher, and Naphtali were to thenorth; Reuben, Simeon,and Gad to the south; and to the westwere Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) and Benjamin.
Whenthe people were on the move, the priests went in the front carryingthe ark of the covenant, following the pillar of cloud. When it cameto rest over a place, there the priests would set down the ark.Behind them followed Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun. After them camethe Gershonites and the Merarites, carrying the bundled tabernacle,which they set up around the ark when the people made camp. Reuben,Simeon, and Gad took their places. Then came the Kohathites, whocarried the furnishings and vessels for the tabernacle. Next followedJoseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) and Benjamin. Finally, as a rearguard,came Dan, accompanied by Asher and Naphtali (Num. 10:11–33).
Oncetheir sojourn in the wilderness was over, the Israelites began toconquer the land of Canaan. Joshua allotted portions of land to eachtribe (Josh. 13–21). The descendants of Joseph constituted twotribes, Manasseh and Ephraim. Each of those two received aninheritance; thus, Joseph can be said to have received a doubleportion as though firstborn. The Jordan River formed a natural borderdown the middle of the land. To its east were parts of Manasseh, Gad,and Reuben. The other tribes were to the west. The southernmost tribewas Judah. Within Judah was Simeon, which over time was absorbed intoJudah. Levi had no land for an inheritance, since Yahweh was Levi’sinheritance—fulfilling Jacob’s prophecy of Levi andSimeon being scattered throughout Israel. Immediately north of Judahwere Dan and Benjamin. The remaining tribes were more northern still.So that they would not forget Yahweh, the tribes across the Jordanbuilt an alternative altar, not for sacrifice but rather as areminder of the true and living God (Josh. 22).
Judges
Thehistory of the conquest underscores the fact that the tribes failedto drive out the inhabitants of the land completely. Many citiesremained centers for non-Israelite culture and religion. “WhenJoshua had grown old, the Lord said to him, ‘You are now veryold, and there are still very large areas of land to be taken over’”(Josh. 13:1). Judges 1 lists many peoples that continued to livealongside the Israelites.
Someof these peoples became incorporated into the mix of tribes. Rahaband her family from Jericho became integrated into the tribe of Judah(Josh. 2–6). The Gibeonites were a Canaanite people group whowere incorporated into Israel (Josh. 9). Ruth the Moabite marriedinto Judah (Ruth 4). Uriah the Hittite is an example of a Canaanitewho was fully naturalized, to the extent that he kept himselfceremonially pure and fought in God’s holy wars for Israel(2Sam. 11:11).
Thebook of Judges records the relative success or failure of each tribeto subdue and settle its own territory, and Judah consistently standsout as superior in this respect. Judges 1:2 puts Judah first. Judahprovided leadership and support to Simeon, helping it to fulfill itsown calling (1:17). After describing Judah’s success, Judg. 1delineates the other tribes’ failures.
Twostories at the end of Judges illustrate the character of Judah inthis period. Whenever Bethlehem and the other cities of Judah are thesetting, sojourners and others are treated hospitably, have no fears,and prosper. This is true also of the book of Ruth. But when folktravel elsewhere—to Moab or north to Ephraim or Benjamin—theymeet only trouble. Ephraim provided no protection to Micah when thelawless Danites overran his house (Judg. 18). Moab brought onlyfamine, barrenness, and death (Ruth 1).
Butthe worst case of all is the Benjamite city of Gibeah (Judg. 19–20).There, the sin of Sodom was repeated as men surrounded the host’shouse and demanded the sojourner. All Israel took up arms to destroythe wicked city and to punish the wicked tribe. As in the first twoverses of Judges, God appointed Judah to the leadership position(Judg. 20:18). Judah then did to Benjamin what God had done to Sodom,almost wiping out the tribe.
UnitedKingdom
Nevertheless,when the tribes came together and demanded a king, the first kingwhom God gave them, Saul, was from the tribe of Benjamin (1Sam.9:17). Benjamin was situated midway between Judah of the south andthe northern tribes. Saul was successful in leading the army ofIsrael, and for a time he enjoyed God’s blessing. But in theend, God rejected him and sent Samuel the prophet to anoint aBethlehemite, David, to become the next king. However, upon Saul’sdeath, his son Ish-Bosheth (Ishbaal) claimed the throne (2Sam.2:8–9), around 1011 BC.
Therefollowed a bitter civil war between the house of Saul, backed by thenorthern tribes, and the house of David, backed by Judah. After sevenyears, David had grown stronger and Ish-Bosheth weaker, until atHebron David was finally acknowledged as king of all Israel (2Sam.5:3). David’s throne would last for centuries, until thedestruction of Jerusalem. In the NT, David’s greater son Jesusinherited the throne. Thus, Jacob’s prophecy that the tribe ofJudah would hold the scepter was fulfilled.
Thenorthern tribes did not forget that they had once fought againstDavid. David was caught in a scandal when his troops were in battle,and this may have further lessened their loyalty to him (2Sam.12). When his son Absalom rebelled and proclaimed himself king, thenorthern tribes once more allied themselves against David, andanother civil war ensued. Although David won back his throne, thedissatisfaction of the northern tribes with the house of Davidcontinued (2Sam. 15–19).
AfterDavid died, Solomon inherited his throne (971 BC). Throughout hisreign, Solomon placed burdens on the tribes. He divided his kingdominto administrative districts that did not exactly correspond to thetribal territories. Dan and Zebulun were folded into otherterritories, and Asher seemed to have been ceded to Phoenicia(1Kings 4). Thus, Solomon’s kingdom systematicallyweakened tribal identities. He laid a levy upon the tribes of Israelof thousands of men to provide a labor force for his buildingprojects (1Kings 5). Solomon built and consecrated the temple,and Jerusalem thus became both the political and religious center ofthe nation. The price for this, however, was the exacerbateddiscontent of the northern tribes.
UponSolomon’s death, the tribes confronted his son Rehoboam with ademand to lighten Solomon’s “harsh labor and ...heavy yoke” (1Kings 12:4). Rehoboam foolishly replied,“My father made your yoke heavy; I will make it even heavier.My father scourged you with whips; I will scourge you with scorpions”(1Kings 12:14). The northern tribes finally abandoned David’shouse and thus became an independent political and religious state(931BC).
DividedKingdom
Throughoutthe period of the divided kingdom, tribal identities became lessimportant, for their loyalties were now dominated by the reigningking of either nation. The border between the northern and thesouthern kingdoms was more or less a straight line, from Joppa on thewest near the Mediterranean, to the upper tip of the Dead Sea. Thiscut through Dan, Ephraim, and Benjamin, leaving Simeon surrounded byJudah. Jerusalem was just south of the border. The first king of thenorth, Jeroboam, placed golden calves just north of the border, inBethel, and also at the northern end of his kingdom, in the city ofDan. These served as cultic alternatives to the temple in Jerusalemfor the duration of the northern kingdom. He also modified the law ofMoses to allow for non-Levitical priests and a different liturgicalcalendar. The northern kingdom was called “Israel” (itscapital was Samaria), and the southern kingdom was called “Judah”(1Kings 12:25–33).
Forhalf a century war ensued between the two kingdoms. The two formed analliance during the reigns of Ahab and his sons. King Ahab of Israelgave his daughter Athaliah to be married to King Jehoshaphat’sson Jehoram. Together the kingdoms fought against common enemies,such as Syria and Moab. They successfully turned back the superpowerof the day, Assyria.
UnderKing Ahab and his wife Jezebel, Baal worship was aggressivelypromoted at the expense of traditional Yahwism. During this periodElijah and Elisha called the people back to the God of theirancestors, but with little success (1Kings 17–2Kings13). A small group of faithful worshipers called the “sons ofthe prophets” did remain true to Yahweh, but most of Israelabandoned him. Hosea and Amos later also warned Israel, but theircalls went unheeded. Ahab and Jezebel’s daughter Athaliahmarried Jehoram, and both of them promoted Baal worship in Judah justas in Israel. Thus, the people of Yahweh had become the people ofBaal. Jezebel’s son Joram ruled Israel upon Ahab’s death,and Athaliah’s son Ahaziah ruled Judah upon Jehoram’sdeath.
Elishasecretly anointed one of Joram’s generals, Jehu, to bring theOmride dynasty to an end in Israel and to become the next king(2Kings 9). Jehu killed both kings and Jezebel, and hedestroyed all remnants of Ahab’s family. He also slaughteredthe worshipers of Baal: “so Jehu destroyed Baal worship inIsrael” (10:28). Upon the death of her son the king, Athaliahseized the throne and did to David’s house what Jehu had doneto Ahab’s: she had every family member killed.
Butone infant survived: Joash. He was secretly raised in the temple ofYahweh until he was seven years old. Then his supporters proclaimedhim king. Athaliah cried out, “Treason! Treason!”(2Kings 11:14), and the priest Jehoiada had her put to death.The place and objects of Baal worship were destroyed, endingstate-sponsored Baalism in Judah (11:17–18).
Fallof Both Kingdoms
Afterboth kingdoms’ period of infatuation with Baal (under thedomination of the Omrides), their history as nations continued totheir final fall. In Israel, the people never gave up Jeroboam’sperversion of the law of Moses. In Judah, kings varied widely intheir regard for the law of Moses; sometimes they were faithful,sometimes very unfaithful. Meanwhile, Assyria was a constant threat.During the reign of the good king Hezekiah, Judah was overrun by theforces of the Assyrian king Sennacherib. God miraculously deliveredJerusalem (2Kings 18). However, there was no such deliverancefor Israel. Samaria was besieged for three years and finally taken(722 BC). Most of the population was deported (17:5–18). Otherpeople groups were transplanted there who learned the law of Mosesand feared Yahweh along with their own gods (17:24–41).
Atthis point in their history, only Judah remained as a politicalentity; the northern tribes of Israel were lost. After the faithfulking Hezekiah, Judah’s next significant king was Manasseh. Heis described in 2Kings as the king most offensive to God. Tocategorize him, it was not enough to compare him unfavorably withDavid (see 2Kings 14:3) or to equate him with Ahab and Jezebel(see 8:18). Rather, Manasseh was compared to the pagan nations thatJoshua had driven out of the land, which were destroyed because oftheir wickedness. Manasseh was the last straw. Because of hiscomplete abandonment to idolatry, God determined to make an end ofJerusalem (21:11–15).
Yetstill the judgment was delayed. Two years after Manasseh’sdeath, Josiah reigned on the throne of David, and early in his careerthe Book of the Law was rediscovered in the temple. Josiah called fornational repentance, and for a time Judah got rid of its idols andreturned to God (2Kings 23). But this repentance was relativelyshort-lived.
Josiahwas the last good king of Judah. God sent Judah prophets such asJeremiah, but they went unheeded. In the end, God sent KingNebuchadnezzar of Babylon up against his own beloved city, Jerusalem.Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed, many of its people killed,and most of those who were left carried into exile to Babylon.
Exileand Restoration
Thefall of Jerusalem in 586 BC essentially ended the existence of thetribes as independent political entities. For the remainder of theirhistory they were, almost without exception, under the heel of greatforeign powers. At this point, they were called “Jews.”Nebuchadnezzar conscripted some of the younger men to serve in hiscourt (Dan. 1). The deportees remained in Babylon until its empirefell to the Medes and the Persians under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC.
Cyrusissued a decree at that time allowing the Jews to return to theirancestral land and rebuild the temple of Yahweh. They began tomigrate back to the land of promise and began their efforts torebuild the temple and the city of Jerusalem. These efforts continuedunder a succession of Persian kings. Although the Jews were home andable once again to worship God in the way he had specified in thelaw, Nehemiah lamented that they were little more than slaves, sincethey were subject to Persia (Neh. 9:36). Gone was the dynasty ofDavid, gone were most of the tribes, and gone was the greatness ofdays past. The sins of their fathers had brought them to this sadsituation.
Inthe return to the land, the genealogies of the returnees were veryimportant. These preserved family and tribal identities so that theirlineages would not be lost. The books that originated in therestoration period preserve these lists (see 1Chron. 1–9).
Persiaand the entire ancient world eventually were conquered by Alexanderthe Great. His successors divided the land after his death; twogenerals controlled Syria to the north and Egypt to the south ofPalestine. They constantly squabbled over their borders, whichincluded Palestine. Finally, AntiochusIV Epiphanes (r.175–164BC), king of Syria, decided to turn Jerusalem into a Greek city. Hebrought great pressure on the Jews to abandon their faith. Jews foundwith a copy of the law were killed, and circumcision of infants wasforbidden. He ransacked the temple and placed an idol in it. SomeJews abandoned their faith, but others resisted. Finally, Antiochusdied, and the Jews for a short time enjoyed independence. Over time,the Roman Empire engulfed Palestine. Herod the Great ruled as king ofthe Jews for Rome in the years 37–4 BC. Upon Herod’sdeath, his kingdom was divided among his sons.
NewTestament
TheJews in Judea in Jesus’ day had learned to find their national,ethnic, and cultural identity in the law of Moses. They dutifullyfollowed the purity laws, especially in keeping the Sabbath. Theirreligion was centered on the temple, and they kept Passover and theother prescribed obligations. Although the one remaining tribe,Judah, no longer could boast of a king on the throne of David or evenindependence, it was a nation whose people thought of themselves asYahweh’s people. By Jesus’ time, they anticipated that adescendant of David, a Messiah, would arise to restore the lostkingdom of David.
Althoughthe northern tribes were lost, there was some limited continuingawareness of tribal identity in this period. The book of Esther’sMordecai is from the tribe of Benjamin, and there are a number ofreferences to Benjamin in the intertestamental literature (e.g.,2Macc. 3:4). Anna the prophetess was from the tribe of Asher(Luke 2:36). Paul knew himself to be from the tribe of Benjamin (Rom.11:1; Phil. 3:5). He used his knowledge of this fact to help bolsterhis argument that he was truly a Jew. The Levites also survived theexile, and the priestly caste continued. The kingly and priestlytribes remained, with a few others.
Jesusis presented in Matt. 1 as a direct descendant of David through theline of kings. He is the promised Messiah (John 1:41), the “Lionof the tribe of Judah” (Rev. 5:5). Jesus promised his twelvedisciples that some day they would rule over the tribes of Israel(Matt. 19:28). In Christ, the definition of the tribes of Israel hadchanged. Gentiles were now grafted onto the olive tree of Israel(Rom. 11:17). Revelation 7:4–10 records the number from eachtribe who bear the seal of the Lamb. After hearing this, John turnedand saw them: they were revealed to be a vast company of the redeemedfrom every tribe on earth. Thus, the church had spiritually becomethe twelve tribes of Israel.
InAD 70 the temple was destroyed. Soon afterward, Israel was scattered,not to be a nation again in the promised land until 1948.
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1. A Great Prophet Has Arisen Among Us
Illustration
Richard A. Jensen
"Shunem: Site of the Prophet Elisha's Resurrection Miracle." If they had had road signs in the days of old this might have been the sign that welcomed you to Shunem. All the people of Shunem and all the people in the cities around Shunem surely knew of Elisha's miraculous feat. This was an area known for its prophets!
Elisha's prophetic forerunner, Elijah, was the first prophet to raise a young man to life. It happened in Zarephath (1 Kings 17:8-24). Perhaps it is not surprising that Elisha also raised a young man to life. We are told, after all, that Elisha inherited a double share of Elijah's spirit!
In a story told in 2 Kings 4 we hear that Elijah came to Shunem one day and had a bite to eat at the home of a wealthy woman. Since there were no fast food restaurants in Elisha's day, he stopped quite often at the house of the Shunammite woman to get something to eat. The woman sensed that Elisha was a holy one of God. So she persuaded her husband to fix up a permanent guest room for Elisha. She invited Elisha to stop and stay with them whenever he passed through Shunem. And he did. Free room and board is a pretty good deal, after all!
Now Elisha was an honorable man. He thought he should really give this woman some kind of gift. He told his servant Gehazi to ask the Shunammite woman what gift he might give to her. Gehazi went. He discovered that the woman was quite content with what she had. She asked for nothing. "But there must be something we can give this woman," Elisha insisted to Gehazi. Then Gehazi had a wonderful idea. "This woman has no child and her husband is old," he said to Elisha. Elisha got the point. He announced to the woman of Shunem that, "At this season, when the time comes round, you shall embrace a son" (2 Kings 4:16). And it came to pass just as Elisha had promised. One day years later, the son of the woman of Shunem went out among the reapers to be with his father. Suddenly he began to complain bitterly. "Oh, my head, my head!" he shrieked.
"Carry the lad to his mother," the father ordered. The reapers did so. The boy lay on his mother's lap until noon, and then he died. The Shunammite woman carried her son straightway to Elisha's guest room and laid him on Elisha's very own bed. She then set out to Mt. Carmel determined to find Elisha. When she found the prophet she fell before him and took hold of his feet. "Did I ask my Lord for a son?" she pleaded. "Did I not say, 'Do not mislead me'?" (2 Kings 4:28).
Elisha got the point. He returned to Shunem, went to his room where the dead boy lay, shut the door and began to pray. Elisha then stretched himself upon the boy and breathed his breath into him. Soon the child sneezed seven times and then opened his eyes. "Take your son," Elisha said to the woman of Shunem.
"Shunem: Site of the Prophet Elisha's Resurrection Miracle." Thus a sign at the city gate might have read. The city of Nain was just a stone's throw down the road from Shunem. The citizens of Nain undoubtedly basked in Shunem's glory. They, too, believed themselves to live in a land where prophets do miracles."
2. Who Jesus Raised to Life
Illustration
Alexander H. Wales
If you ask most Christians who Jesus raised to life, the most common response you would get would be "Lazarus." How could we miss the story of the raising of the brother of Mary and Martha? The three days in the tomb caused the sisters to warn Jesus that Lazarus would "stinketh." What a great word, "stinketh"! It sounds like something you would say about a high school locker room after a big basketball game. The resurrection story found in the chapter 11 of the Gospel of John is THE story that springs to mind when we talk about the incredible power of Jesus even over the minions of death. But here in chapter 7 of Luke, we have another miraculous resurrection of an individual without much fanfare or comment: a miracle that ranks right up there with walking on water and bringing sight to the blind, but which gets less than exciting press coverage. I have a feeling that we tend to leave it alone because we get embarrassed by it.
You see, this is a miracle without much explanation or theological intrigue. It happens so quickly that we read it, swallow hard and move on.
3. Public Notions of Jesus' Identity
Illustration
Brett Blair
Some, said Peter, say that you are Elijah. Now why would people think that Jesus was the long deceased prophet Elijah? Elijah was, of course, a highly revered personality in the religious life of the Hebrews. His defeat of the 450 prophets of Baal on the top of Mt. Carmel was a story that was known even by little children. It was a commonly held belief among the Hebrews that one day Elijah would return and that would mark the end of the world. In the very last passage in the Old Testament, in the Book of Malachi, we find these words: "Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet before that great and dreadful day of the Lord comes."
Most of you have read Charles Schultz's comic strip Peanuts. One day we see that the television is on but there is no one in the room listening to it. The announcer is talking about a golf tournament that is in process. He says: Smith has to make this putt to win the championship. There will be no tomorrow." And just as he says, "There will be no tomorrow," in walks Lucy. She immediately goes into a panic and starts running around and yelling to the other children: "The world is coming to an end. They just announced it on television." Her panic quickly spreads as we see all the peanuts kids as they go wildly screaming about. Finally in the last square we see all of the children huddled on top of Snoopy's doghouse waiting for the end of the world. And Charlie Brown finally speaks up with a puzzled voice: I thought that Elijah was supposed to come back first."
Well, Charlie Brown knew his Bible. Elijah was suppose to come back before the end time. When the disciples told Jesus that some people thought he was Elijah, they were expressing a common thought among the people that the end was very near.
4. Taken Identity
Illustration
Rev. Adrian Dieleman
A Jewish woman was fleeing the German Gestapo in France. She knew she was close to being caught and she wanted to give up. A Christian woman, a widow, told her it was time to flee to a new place. The Jew said, “It’s no use, they will find me anyway. They are so close behind.” The Christian widow said, “Yes, they will find someone here, but it’s time for you to leave. Go. I will take your identification and wait for them.”
The Jewish lady then understood the plan; the Gestapo would come and find this Christian widow and think she was the fleeing Jew.
The Jewish lady asked her why she was doing that. The widow responded, “It’s the least I can do; Christ has already done that and more for me.”
The widow was caught and imprisoned in the Jewish lady’s place, allowing time for her to escape. Within six months the widow died in the concentration camp.
The Jewish lady never forgot. She too became a follower of Jesus Christ and lived her life serving others. She met God through the greatest love a person can give--personal self-sacrifice.
5. One Wound At a Time
Illustration
King Duncan
In Henri Nouwen’s book, The Wounded Healer, there is an old legend out of the Talmud. A rabbi comes upon Elijah, the prophet, and asks him, “When will the Messiah come?”
Elijah replies, “Go, and ask him yourself.”
“Where is he?” the rabbi asks.
“Sitting at the gates of the city,” Elijah responds.
“But, how shall I know him?” asks the rabbi
“He is sitting among the poor,” Elijah answers, “covered with wounds.”
“The others unbind all their wounds at the same time and then bind them up again,” Elijah explains, “but he unbinds only one wound at a time. Then he binds it up again, saying to himself, `Perhaps I shall be needed; if so, I must always be ready, so as not to delay for a moment.’”
6. Who Is Jesus?
Illustration
John R. Brokhoff
Now, more than ever, we need to face the question, "Who is the real Jesus?" Is the Christ of faith the Jesus of history? What is the truth about Jesus? What can we believe? We turn to the Apostles' Creed which has given the church's answer for 2,000 years.
Different Positions
It is not strange that the most popular question of our time is, "Who is Jesus?" Was this question not answered in Matthew 16:16 when Peter said to Jesus at Caesarea Philippi: "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God"? In Jesus' day, too, there were different opinions about Jesus. When on a retreat with his disciples, he asked them what people were saying about him. The public was divided: Jesus was considered to be John the Baptist, Elijah, Jeremiah, or one of the prophets. What more of an answer do we need than the answer of Peter? Jesus accepted his answer as the truth, for he said, "Blessed are you, Simon, son of Jonah! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father in heaven" (Matthew 16:17). Yet, after twenty centuries, we do not believe what Peter said about the identity of Jesus. According to a Gallup poll, 42 percent of Americans agreed with the statement: "Jesus is the Son of God." A recent report from Germany indicated that only one out of every four believe in Jesus Christ. Throughout Christian history down to the present, there are different views of Jesus. Now let us look at some of them.
1. The All-Human Jesus
Human
According to this position, Jesus is 100 percent human. It was held as early as the first centuries of Christianity by the Ebionites. They denied that Jesus was divine. He was only a teacher, prophet, miracle-man, and one with an outstanding character. But he was not divine, the Son of God. Today this view is held by many, including atheists, agnostics, Unitarians, Jews, Moslems, and other non-Christian religions.
2. The All-Divine Jesus
Divine
Opposite the Ebionites, Docetists held that Jesus was entirely divine. He was not at all human. This view was originally taught by Eutychus, a monk in a monastery near Constantinople. In the fourth century, Appolonarius, bishop of Laodicea, popularized the teaching. It was known as Docetism, from the Latin word docere meaning "to seem." It just seemed that Jesus was human. It was based on the idea that the physical and material were inherently evil. The human body therefore was sinful. Jesus therefore was not human, for God could not be identified with sin. Docetists held that Jesus' human nature was swallowed up by the divine. This denied the Incarnation, the biblical teaching that "the Word became flesh."
3. The Half And Half Jesus
Human/Divine
Nestorians took the view that Jesus was half human and half divine. It was taught by Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, in the fifth century. To this day it is a very popular understanding of Jesus. When we see Jesus hungry, thirsty, and tired, we say it was because he was human. When he struggles in prayer and on the cross cries out, "My God, why ...?" we see the human Jesus. On the other hand, Jesus is God when he walks on water, feeds 5,000, raises the dead, heals lepers, and rises from the grave. The problem with this view is that we have a divided Jesus -- two persons in one body.
4. The Adopted Jesus
Divine
Human
This is known as adoptionism. According to this position, Jesus came into the world as a human. Because of his moral excellence, his perfect obedience to God, his wisdom, his compassion for people, and his willing sacrifice of himself on the cross, the Father adopted him as his son at his baptism. This adoption was confirmed by the resurrection and the ascension. Jesus then became a deified man.
5. The Both And Jesus
Human & Divine
The above different positions concerning Jesus caused great concern, for the gospel was at stake. If Jesus were only human, then he was just a martyr on the cross and not the Lamb that took away the sin of the world. If he were only human, the resurrection was a fairy tale. His promises of forgiveness and eternal life were meaningless. His claims to know God and to be one with God would then be the words of a religious fanatic who was deluded into thinking he was the Son of God.
On the other hand, if Jesus were only divine and not human, humanity would be the loser. Because he was human, he became one of us. As a human, he fulfilled the law for us. Through his humanity we could see the nature of God. Above all, he became sin for us so that sin, through him, could go out of the world. As a human Jesus knows our human condition. Like all of us he was tempted and he showed that by the power of God we can overcome temptation to sin.
Consequently, the church had to take a stand on the question of Jesus. Is he only human, only divine, or half and half? In 451 A.D. the church held a council at Chalcedon to decide the issue. The church decided that it was not a matter of Jesus being fully God or fully human, or half and half, but it was a matter of both, both fully human and fully divine. To this day the church holds to this truth stated at Chalcedon:
We confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, perfect in manhood, truly God and truly man, or a rational soul and a body, of one substance with the Father with respect to the Godhead, and of one substance with us in respect of the manhood, like us in everything but sin ...
This is to say that Jesus is fully God and fully man. These two natures are blended into one integrated personality. He is not a split personality, nor does he suffer from schizophrenia. It is like a blender in your kitchen. Suppose you put apples, peaches, and pears in it and pushed the "on" button for a minute. Now what do you have -- apples, peaches, and pears? Yes, you do, but can you tell which is which? They have become one fruit, one substance. Also, it is like hom*ogenized milk. When the raw milk comes from the farm, a dairy runs it through a hom*ogenizer. As the milk runs through the machine, pistons compact the milk so that the cream and skim milk are made one. As a result you cannot take cream off the milk. In the same way, the human and divine natures of Jesus are compacted into one integrated person.
This means that the Father and the Son are one. When Jesus prays, God also prays. When the human Jesus suffers and dies on a cross, God is in Jesus enduring the cross. "God was in Christ reconciling the world to himself" (2 Corinthians 5:19). When the human Jesus speaks, it is also God who speaks. When Jesus weeps, God weeps. This truth makes us realize the seriousness of the cross. It was not only a human on the cross, but God was there in Jesus. Good Friday is the day God died in Jesus. Indeed, the murderers did not know what they were doing; they did not know they were killing God! As the spiritual says, "Sometimes it causes me to tremble, tremble, tremble."
7. Live and Love
Illustration
Staff
When a terrible plague came to ancient Athens, people there committed every horrible crime and engaged in every lustful pleasure they could because they believed that life was short and they would never have to pay any penalty. In one of the world's most famous poems, a poet of that time Catullus wrote,
My sweetest Lesbia, let us live and love;
And though the sager sort our deeds reprove,
Let us not weigh them. Heaven's great lamps do dive
Into their west, and straight again revive,
But soon as once is set our little light,
Then must we sleep one ever-during night.
The poem encourages lovers to scorn the snide comments of others, and to live only for each other, since life is brief and death brings a night of perpetual sleep.
8. Richly Rewarded
Illustration
Staff
In the latter part of the 17th century, German preacher August H. Francke founded an orphanage to care for the homeless children of Halle. One day when Francke desperately needed funds to carry on his work, a destitute Christian widow came to his door begging for a ducat - a gold coin. Because of his financial situation, he politely but regretfully told her he couldn't help her. Disheartened, the woman began to weep. Moved by her tears, Francke asked her to wait while he went to his room to pray. After seeking God's guidance, he felt that the Holy Spirit wanted him to change his mind. So, trusting the Lord to meet his own needs, he gave her the money. Two mornings later, he received a letter of thanks from the widow. She explained that because of his generosity she had asked the Lord to shower the orphanage with gifts. That same day Francke received 12 ducats from a wealthy lady and 2 more from a friend in Sweden. He thought he had been amply rewarded for helping the widow, but he was soon informed that the orphanage was to receive 500 gold pieces from the estate of Prince Lodewyk Van Wurtenburg. When he heard this, Francke wept in gratitude. In sacrificially providing for that needy widow, he had been enriched, not impoverished.
9. BRIDGES NOT WALLS
Illustration
John H. Krahn
There are basically two kinds of people in the world: those who build walls and those who build bridges. The great American poet Robert Frost wrote, "Before you build walls, make sure you know what you are walling out and what you are walling in." Unfortunately, most of us have built some walls during our lives - perhaps even a few more than bridges. God suggests we rent a crane, one with a big steel ball at the end, and start knocking them down. With the walls crushed we can then build a bridge between us and the person with whom we didn’t get along. Bridge built, now love and joy begin to pass between us.
Bridge building becomes possible for the believer through the cross of Jesus Christ. His cross bridged the chasm of sin, alienation, and death that separated God from us. Faith in him now makes it possible for us to span the gulf that isolates us from certain family members and neighbors.
The story is told about a teenage girl who was told that if she stayed out beyond a certain time, she would have to eat bread and water at supper. She stayed out too late, so at supper time she was given bread and water. But as the family started to eat, the father reached over and took the bread and water and gave the daughter his own meal. They ate in silence for a while, and then the girl, with tears in her eyes, came over and put her arms around her father’s neck as she said, "Daddy, I’ll never disobey you again." Something had happened to her on the inside. No threat of punishment, no fear of consequences, could work a miracle like that. Only love, bridge-building love could do it.
When Christ came, he bestowed a kiss on a weary world. We have the sweet kiss of forgiveness and acceptance through his death and resurrection. It is not ours only to savor but also is ours to give. Give it today - especially to a person who might least expect it. Then stand back and watch out for crumbling walls.
10. The Parable of the Five Brothers
Illustration
Joachim Jeremias
The first point is concerned with the reversal of fortune in the after-life (vv. 19-26), the second (vv. 27-31) with the petition of the rich man that Abraham may send Lazarus to his five brethren. . . [Jesus places] the stress is on the second point. That means that Jesus does not want to comment on a social problem, nor does he intend to give teaching about the after-life, but he relates the parable to warn men who resemble the brothers of the rich man of the impending danger. Hence the poor Lazarus is only a secondary figure, introduced by way of contrast. The parable is about the five brothers, and it should not be styled the parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus, but the parable of the Six Brothers.
The surviving brothers, who have their counterpart in the men of the Flood generation [Jeremias' reference to Noah's generation], living a careless life, heedless of the rumble of the approaching flood (Matt. 24:37-39), are men of this world, like their dead brother. Like him they live in selfish luxury, deaf to God's word, in the belief that death ends all (v. 28). Scornfully, Jesus was asked by these skeptical worldlings for a valid proof of a life after death, if they were to be paying heed to his warning. Jesus wanted to open their eyes, but to grant their demand would not be the right way to do so. Why did Jesus refuse it? Because its fulfillment would have been meaningless; even the greatest wonder, resurrection, would be in vain [in John 11:46 ff. the raising of Lazarus served to complete the hardening of the Jews]. He who will not submit to the word of God, will not be converted by a miracle. The demand for a sign is an evasion and a sign of impenitence. Hence the sentence is pronounced: "God will never give a sign to this generation" (Mark 8.12).
11. A Russian Resurrection
Illustration
Donald Dotterer
An old illustration about Russia with an update. You'll see in the update that Yancey pickedup on a movement that seems to have held:
Columnist Philip Yancey, in an article titled "A Russian Resurrection," writes of his visit in October 1991 to the former Soviet Union. He says that it "would be hard to overstate the chaos that he found when he arrived in the Soviet Union, a nation that was about to shed its historical identity as well as its name." Yancey reports that one day the central bank ran out of money. Several days later the second largest republic withdrew from the union. There was a sense of crisis everywhere.
Doctors announced that the best hospital in Moscow might close its doors for lack of money. Crime was increasing nearly 50 percent a year. No one knew what the country would be like in a year or even six months. Who would be responsible for controlling the nuclear weapons? Who would print the money?
Certainly this once great empire was in confusion and turmoil. And yet Yancey found something else in his visit to Russia in the midst of chaos and financial hardship. An attractive young woman who was in charge of cultural affairs summed up the new attitude in Russia toward Christianity.
This Russian woman said softly but with great emotion: "We have all been raised on one religion: atheism. We were trained to believe in the material world, and not in God. In fact, those who believed in God were frightened. A stone wall separated these people from the rest."
Then she said, "Suddenly we have realized that something was missing. Now religion is open to us, and we see the great eagerness of young people. We must explore religion, which can give us a new life, and a new understanding about life."
There are now Russian language Bibles on display in the Kremlin government building. The church bells are sounding again, and the churches are full of worshipers. Women in babushkas are publicly kneeling in prayer outside the great cathedrals, an act that just a few short years ago would have required great courage.
So it is. Here is a genuine miracle of God in our time. As Philip Yancey concludes, here, in the former Soviet Union, which was officially atheistic until 1990, here in perhaps the least likely of all places, here were the unmistakable signs of an authentic spiritual awakening. Here were the signs of spiritual resurrection.
LATE 2018 UPDATE
In Russia, there is a religious revival happening. Orthodox Christianity is thriving after enduring a 70-year period of atheistic Soviet rule. In 1991, just after the collapse of the USSR, about two-thirds of Russians claimed no religious affiliation. Today, 71 percent of Russians identify as Orthodox. One can now see priests giving sermons on television, encounter religious processions in St. Petersburg, and watch citizens lining up for holy water in Moscow. Even Moscow’s Darwin museum features a Christmas tree during the holidays. President Vladimir Putin has encouraged this revival and he has also benefited from it, both at home and abroad. Last year, he explained that Russia’s intervention in the Syrian civil war was designed to protect Christians from the Islamic State. Not only has the Orthodox Church supported this “holy war” but so have some American evangelicals, who are likewise concerned about Christians in the Middle East and praise Putin’s socially conservative policies.
See:https://religionandpolitics.org/2018/10/16/russias-journey-from-orthodoxy-to-atheism-and-back-again/
12. Giving - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
There was a man who called at the church and asked if he could speak to the Head Hog at the trough. The secretary said, "Who?" Then she gathered herself and said "Sir, if you mean our pastor you will have to treat him with a little more respect than that and ask for the ‘Reverend' or ‘The Pastor.' But certainly you cannot refer to him as the Head Hog at the Trough." The man said, "I understand. I was calling because I have $10,000 I was thinking about donating to the building fund." She said, "Hold on for just a moment—I think the big pig just walked in the door."
Now I am sure the secretary wouldn't treat me like that, some of the laity perhaps but not the secretary! But we all are subject to changing our tune when money is suddenly involved. That is why this passage of Scripture has been an enduring image throughout the ages. We play favorites. We treat those who give more as if they are the pillars on which the church is erected.
But consider with me another image. Jesus, sitting opposite the place where the offerings were put, is observing the people make their donations as they come into the temple. He is not alone. Seated with him are the leaders—the Sadducees. It is startling to think of Jesus sitting with those whom he had scorned for their hypocrisy. Remember that as they watch there is no paper money, so all of the offerings make a terrible noise as they roll down this long horn shaped object and fall into the pool of coins. And here comes this little old lady and she has two small coins worth nothing and drops them in. They barely make a noise. You can almost see the Temple leaders as they roll their eyes and hope for better results with the next person who walks in the door. Jesus then calls his Disciples over and says, "This poor widow has put more in to the treasury than all the others." To the Sadducees this woman is a waste of time, but to Jesus she is the stuff by which Kingdoms are erected. Thus, at its heart, the story of the widow's mite is a strong reminder to the kingdoms of this world…
- That the Kingdom of God is built by the widow as well as the wealthy.
- That the Kingdom of God recognizes the level of sacrifice.
- That the Kingdom of God warns us about pride.
13. A Matter of Excess
Illustration
Larry Powell
Before commentingdirectly about Mark 6:30-44, allow me to direct your attention to two Old Testament stories.
1. The first story is found in 2 Kings 4:1-7 and concerns the widow of a prophet whose creditors were about to foreclose her outstanding debt. Additionally, her two sons were to be carried away as slaves. Beside herself, the widow cried out to Elisha for help. Elisha asked her if she had anything in the house of value which might be sold to provide money toward the debt. "Only a partially filled jar of oil," she answered. Elisha surprisingly instructed her to go throughout the community collecting jars to be filled with her oil. We are probably safe to assume that if she did not feel rather foolish, there is a good chance her sons did. Here she went, gathering empty jars to hold the little bit of oil which did not nearly fill the jar it was in. When it was all said and done however, there was more oil than jars to put it in, enough money was available to pay the creditor, and the excess was sufficient for the widow and her boys to live on.
2. The other story is also found in 2 Kings and again deals with excess. A man brought Elisha twenty loaves of barley bread and was instructed by the prophet to feed a rather sizeable gathering. The man asked, "How can I feed 100 men with only twenty loaves of bread?" To make a long story short, let’s read the conclusion of the account: "Then he set it before them and they ate and had some left over" (2 Kings 4:42-44).
The account in Mark 6:30-44 bears striking similarities to the incidents mentioned above, especially the latter. For this reason, the feeding of the 5,000 is understood by many to be Jesus’ confirmation that his ministry was in the prophetic tradition of Elisha and under the authority of God. That is one way to interpret the miracle.
Another explanation was offered years ago by the distinguished Christian, Albert Schweitzer, who believed that the feeding of the 5,000 was an "eschatological sacrament" which was in fact a foretaste, or preview, of the greater feast to be held in the approaching Kingdom of God.
Of course, the simplest explanation is that Jesus was addressing a specific need at a specific time, and that that is the whole of it. However, let us not overlook the emphasis that Mark places upon the miracles of Christ as signs of his authority. We would perhaps be well within the mark to accept all three possibilities as legitimate.
I particularly like the quantity measure in the Elisha stories, the feeding of the 5,000 and other incidents throughout the Scriptures. The provisions were not merely sufficient for the immediate need, but always resulted in excess. Surely that must suggest something to us of the mind of God. His grace and love are more than sufficient for our needs.
14. The Widow’s Mite for $39.95
Illustration
Brett Blair
An advertisem*nt I ran across read: "Now you too can own a Genuine Coin From The Time of Jesus: The Widow's Mite. It's a minor miracle that this coin has survived and now people of faith can study, cherish, and protect it for future generations. It's yet another miracle that they're so affordable."
Then, the ad goes on to quote the Scripture we just heard, "While our limited supplies last, you may order the 2,000 year old Widow's Mite for only $39.95 plus shipping and handling. Remember this is the genuine coin mentioned in the Holy Bible and it makes a perfect gift for your child, grandchild, or favorite clergyman."
The advertisem*nt makes it sound like your buying the actual coin the widow dropped into the receptacle. Of course, you are not. It doesn't exist. Harder still is to purchase the woman's attitude of generosity, which is of greater value in today's market.
15. The Source of Joy and Life
Illustration
Donald Deffner
Years ago a ship on the Atlantic was in distress because its supply of fresh water had run out. The crew faced a horrible death from the thirst, and that with water all around them.
When hope was almost gone, they sighted a ship approaching them. At once they hoisted distress signals. But the only answer they got was "dip it up."
"Dip it up?" What heartless mockery, they must of thought to themselves. To dip up buckets of salt water!
They signaled again, but got the same answer. Finally in despair, they lowered a bucket. Imagine their amazement and joy when it turned out to be fresh, living water. They didn't know it, but they were at the mouth of the mighty Amazon river, whose fresh water flows far out to the sea.
God's fresh living water in his teaching and in his word are always there. Why do we despair? "Dip it up!"
HERE'S ANOTHER VERSION OF THIS ILLUSTRATION
The Amazon River is the largest river in the world. The mouth is 90 miles across. There is enough water to exceed the combined flow of the Yangtze, Mississippi, and Nile Rivers. So much water comes from the Amazon that they can detect its currents 200 miles out in the Atlantic Ocean. One irony of ancient navigation is that sailors in ancient times died for lack of water ...caught in windless waters of the South Atlantic. They were adrift, helpless, dying of thirst. Sometimes other ships from South America who knew the area would come alongside and call out, "What is your problem?" And they would exclaim, "Can you spare us some water? Our sailors are dying of thirst!" And from the other ship would come the cry, "Just lower your buckets. You are in the mouth of the mighty Amazon River." The irony of ancient Israel and the tragedy around us today is that God, the fountain of living water, is right here and people don't recognize Him!
16. For That I Am Especially Thankful
Illustration
During a harvest festival in India, an old widow arrived at her church with an extraordinarily large offering of rice - far more than the poor woman could be expected to afford. The itinerant pastor of the church did not know the widow well. But he did know that she was very poor and so he asked her if she were making the offering in gratitude for some unusual blessing. "Yes," replied the woman. "My son was sick and I promised a large gift to God if he got well." "And your son has recovered?" asked the pastor. The widow paused. "No," she said. "He died last week. But I know that he is in God's care; for that I am especially thankful."
17. Now I Can Go on Living
Illustration
Erskine White
There was a young woman living in Washington, D.C. during the Second World War. Her husband, who had been stationed at a nearby Army base, was killed a year earlier during a training exercise - they had been married just four months. During that whole year, this young widow felt more dead than alive. She merely went through the motions of living. Her family and friends were worried about her and wondered if she would ever "snap out of it."
Easter Sunday came along and a friend asked the young widow to go to church with her. It happened that they went to hear the legendary Peter Marshall, who preached in an historic Presbyterian church which still stands in downtown Washington, a few blocks from the White House.
That morning, Peter Marshall spoke of Mary coming to the tomb and how her tears turned to joy. He described the sound of a wind rustling through the tomb as if the breath of God were blowing by. He described the sight of Jesus rising up from that cold, stone slab, swaying a bit on wounded feet and then walking out into the garden. He described the smell, "the whiff of strange scents which must have drifted back to the Man from that tomb, [the smell] of linen and bandages, spices and myrrh, close air and blood ...(Peter Marshall, The First Easter). By the time Peter Marshall finished that sermon, the people in that church felt as if they had been there in the garden to witness the first Easter themselves!
When the service was over, the young widow practically walked on air as she left the church and her friend couldn't believe the change which had come over her. "What happened to you in there?" she asked. "The weight has finally been lifted," the young woman replied; "now I can go on living again."
18. Make Someone's Life Better
Illustration
King Duncan
Many, many years ago a man moved into a small town. His little house was near the railroad tracks. Every morning he noticed an elderly lady walking along the tracks picking up something and putting it into a bag. The man got curious. He went to a small grocery store nearby and asked the owner about this lady. "Oh, that's the widow Jacobs," said the grocer. "Every day she comes half way across town to pick up the coal that is spilled on the tracks when the early morning train runs through town."
"But there hasn't been a steam locomotive using coal on these tracks for years," replied the new resident.
"That's right," said the store owner. "When the steam train stopped running, old Mr. Simpson who runs the hardware store was concerned that the Widow Jacobs would no longer have coal to heat and cook with. He knew she was too proud to take charity, so he decided to get up early every morning, take a bag of coal and drop it along the tracks. The Widow Jacobs still thinks the steam train runs by here every morning. I think Old Mr. Simpson has been doing that for about 5 years now."
A few lumps of coal dropped along a railroad track each day. It's not much to do, but it's some-thing. I believe God calls each of us to do something to make life better for someone else. That's what this text is saying to us, isn't it?
19. This Is the Day
Illustration
Dr. F.W. Boreham tells about his stay in a quaint old cottage in England occupied by a minister's widow. She had given him her bedroom and in the morning when he pulled up the blind, he saw that into the glass of the windowpane had been cut the words: "This is the day."
He asked the elderly lady about it at breakfast. She explained that she had had a lot of trouble in her time and was always afraid of what was going to happen tomorrow. One day she read the words of the above text. It occurred to her that it meant any day, this day. "Why should I be afraid of the days if He makes them?"
So the widow scratched the words as well as she could in the windowpane, so that every time she drew her blind in the morning she was reminded that "This is the day." Realizing the Lord made it, she was no longer afraid.
20. Clergy Playing It Safe
Illustration
In a book entitled Plain Talk about Churches and Money, one of the authors states: "Clergy often come to their calling with a distinct aversion to conflict and to having to deal with money issues. Our culture seems to reinforce them in that behavior. So long as clergy are cowed and anxious in the face of money and wealth, they will remain silent about the spiritual issue that touches our culture more deeply than any other. The more I steeped myself in this book and looked at churches around me, the more I became convinced this behavior is the way a culture controls a challenge to itself. A money-driven culture seems to want clergy who are ‘safe' and "tame" when dealing with the spiritual dimension of money."
The possibilities go in two directions: one, Jesus is overwhelmed, startled and delighted at this woman's faith, she has done more than all those who are supposedly leaders of the church. She gives sacrificially. They give a token. He wants them all to see real faith at work.
At the same time, she is giving with purpose and meaning, she understands what she has done. Like the woman in the poem, "When I am Old I Am Going to Wear Purple", she gives with freedom, abandon, boldly, bravely, with the sure knowledge that she will not eat, but not caring. She is in control, and has decided to pick her destiny.
The other possibility, and it is a dark one, is that Jesus walks out of the Temple, condemning it to destruction, because he has seen with his own eyes the final straw: the devouring of a widow by the very Temple itself. In allowing the widow to give everything away without any thought to care, the leaders of the Temple beg for their own destruction. From those who have been given much, much is expected.
21. Repeated Petitions
Illustration
While serving as Presbyterian missionaries in Lebanon Ben and Carol Weir learned a great deal about prayer when Ben was suddenly kidnapped by Shiite Muslim extremists in 1984. He was held in solitary confinement, in cramped quarters for sixteen months. Carol wondered whether she would ever see him again. Carol wrote of her ordeal:
The months dragged on. There had been so many meetings, so much discussion without any change. I became more aware of what seemed to me to be the silence of God. What was happening to Ben during these long months? When would this nightmare end?
We ourselves had tried to stir the Reagan Administration to take new initiatives. We had made many private and personal appeals. I remembered the story in scripture of the widow who had knocked and knocked on the door of the unjust judge, the judge who cared nothing for God or man. Finally, because of her persistence, the judge responded. I felt like that widow, whose story had been told over and over for two thousand years. I was knocking on many doors in Washington. Would one door finally open for Ben's release?
Later I was to learn from Ben that he, too, had read that same Bible story during his captivity. He had interpreted it to mean that God does not object to our repeated petitions.
Perhaps God does not speak, but remains silent to listen for something in us. Perhaps God listens for openness and receptivity on our part to the creation of a new, fresh spirit.
22. Prime The Pump
Illustration
Michael P. Green
The story has been told of a man who was crossing a desert in the days of the pioneers. He ran into trouble and was dying of thirst when he spotted a pump near an abandoned shack. He had no water to prime the pump, but he noticed a jug of water near the pump with a note attached. It read: “There is just enough water in this jug to prime the pump, but not if you drink some first. This well has never gone dry, even in the worst of times. Pour the water in the top of the pump and pump the handle quickly. After you have had a drink, refill this jug for the next man who comes along.”
What would the man dying of thirst do? To follow the instructions and prime the pump without first taking a drink would be an exercise of the kind of belief the Bible speaks of. Biblical belief requires that one stake his life on the truth of the promise. If the man follows the instructions, he takes the chance of pouring out all the water and getting none to drink if the pump fails. So he must trust that the message is right. He must act in belief, without first receiving, and must trust in the truth of the promise.
23. John’s Understanding of Self
Illustration
Brian Stoffregen
Peter Steinke in Healthy Congregations: A Systems Approach, has a chapter called "The Immune Congregation." In this chapter he states: "The immune system is a network of cells that recognize and attack foreign invaders. The system asks one profound question: What is self, and what is not self?" [p. 91]
A little later he applies this insight:
The community needs an immune response, to determine what is self and not self. The community needs to ask, for instance, if a certain action continues, whether it will enhance the mission of the congregation or detract from it. Does an individual's or a group's behavior contradict or serve the congregation's purpose? Is there clarity about who is responsible for what and accountable to whom. [p. 91]
In a sense, that is what John does in vv. 19-28. He is both defining who he is and who he is not. He is clear about who he is and his mission. When he states that he is not the Christ and he is not Elijah and he is not one of the prophets, he is not saying that the Christ or Elijah or the prophets are bad; but simply that he is not them. Being clear about who he is and his mission, also means that he is clear about who he is not and what things will not contribute to his mission. While such an understanding of self (and non-self) is important for individuals, Steinke goes a step further and says that it is an essential part of being a healthy congregation.
24. Football Fanatics and Religious Fanatics
Illustration
Maurice A. Fetty
A man in one church recalled how during football season he and his son watched football on television the whole weekend. On Saturdays it was college football, on Sundays professional football, and then to cap it off professional football on Monday evenings. This same father was uncomfortable with his son being away for a weekend religious retreat, fearing his son might turn into a religious fanatic! I asked him if he thought being a sports fan was okay for his son. Of course, he replied. But when I pointed out that "fan" is the shortened form of "fanatic," he was taken aback. His long-neglected wife, a football widow of the first rank, wondered aloud why it was perfectly acceptable to be a football fanatic and not a religious fanatic. "Because," replied her husband without thinking, "unlike a religious fanatic, a football fanatic can be perfectly harmless." "Yes," said the long-unnoticed football widow, "I can vouch for that!"
25. The Wallenda Factor
Illustration
C. W. Bess
Karl Wallenda lived on top of the world. The aerialist thrilled crowds with his daring stunts on the high wire before that fateful day in 1978 when his show ended. Wallenda plunged 75 feet to his death before an audience of thousands in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
What happened? His widow explained that Karl had never been one to know fear. Self-confidence marked his style until he started worrying. Little details of safety preoccupied his mind. He checked and double-checked the tightrope to make certain that everything was secure. This was a different Karl. For the first time, instead of putting his energies into walking the wire, he concentrated on not falling. From then on Wallenda became an accident just waiting to happen. It was inevitable that he fall, or so his widow felt years after the accident.
Motivational speakers and managers now call this the Wallenda factor. Beware of being so afraid of failure that you dwell on the negatives. If so, you will succeed only in the ultimate negative, which is nothing. Life is a risk we must take. Be careful in a prudent sort of way, but don’t be paralyzed by a fear of failure. In Jesus Christ we can be positive and progress on!
26. 16 2/3% Gratitude
Illustration
Patrick J. Willson
A friend began his ministry at little First Presbyterian Church in Aberdeen, Mississippi. His first year as pastor he was visited by three men inquiring about one of his members, a widow who lived by herself. Was she getting out? Were her friends in Aberdeen keeping in touch? Was there anything they needed to know? The three men explained the situation, gave him their cards—one lived in New Jersey, another in Oklahoma, the other in California—and he was told to call them if there was anything they could humanly do to make her life happier or easier.
These three men arrived each year bearing presents their wives had picked out in the shops of San Francisco and New York. The men had hired a family who mowed the woman's yard, trimmed the bushes, and checked on tree branches and gutters. One of the men prepared the woman's tax returns each year, another contracted repairs on her house or made them himself. Sometimes they helped her shop for a new car. They were meticulous in wanting to check on everything and anticipate every difficulty the woman might face.
Each year they visited the President of the Bank of Mississippi in Aberdeen—there was a regular turnover in young bank executives—passed out their cards, explained that he was to notify them of any worldly need this woman might have, and they explained to the Bank President the situation.
So, what's the back story here: Sixty years ago the three men had been three soldiers standing on the ground floor of a house in Normandy just a few days after D-Day when a German potato masher grenade came bouncing down the stairs. A fourth soldier, the woman's husband, threw himself on the grenade, absorbing most of its impact. The three men lived because of his death.
After the war was over in 1945 the three men began making their way to Aberdeen, Mississippi on a regular basis to make sure that this man's widow would lack for nothing they had within their power to provide for her. They had been doing that for more than twenty-five years when my friend was pastor of First Presbyterian Church.
Isn't that a remarkable story? I'll tell you another remarkable thing: there were eighteen soldiers on the first floor of that house in Normandy. All eighteen of them were spared by the action of that one soldier's leaping on a grenade, and after the war was over three of them made their regular pilgrimages to Aberdeen, Mississippi.
Three out of eighteen: that's 16 2/3%. What would 100% gratitude look like? It would change the world.
27. Preparing for the Wrong Thing
Illustration
Larry Powell
According to Jewish religious laws the eldest son of a family was entitled to inherit twice the share as the younger brother (Deuteronomy 21:15-17). In all probability the person who approached Jesus in our text was a younger brother who wanted more than his legal share of an inheritance. Jesus replied to the subject at hand by citing the parable of the "Rich Young Fool." The bottom line of the parable is that the rich fool had prepared for the wrong thing. He had taken his goods into account, but had made up no provision for his own soul.
A dear couple in another city, exceptionally active in the church I was serving at the time, constructed a storm cellar in their backyard. Over a period of several months both of them had shoveled dirt, poured concrete, laid blocks, and literally built the cellar themselves. Soon after it was completed, they invited me out to see what they had accomplished. Understandably proud, they pointed out the neat, solid blockwork of the exterior and called attention to the more than adequate drain-offs. Inside, every provision was made in the event of an extended stay. It was an exceptional storm cellar in all respects, and in every sense of the word, they were more than prepared for a storm. However, in a few short weeks, both of them were killed by a speeding motorist as they attempted to turn from the highway into their driveway. Despite meticulous preparations, the fact remains that they had prepared for the wrong thing. But you say, "It is impossible to prepare for the unexpected!" Yes, that is precisely one of the points Jesus was attempting to underscore in our scriptures.
A young businessman, workaholic, full of hustle and drive, spends twelve hours each day at the office. His wife asks him to come home early to eat the evening meal with the family, but no, he must chase the distant horizon. While other children’s fathers take them to the park, his children find solace in video games. When the wife says he ought to spend more time with the children, he replies that he has given them everything they will ever need. When she complains about his hours, he reminds her of the diamonds she has on her fingers. He had prepared for their every need, right down to the insurance. One day he is summoned to the hospital to be by the bedside of his oldest daughter who has overdosed on drugs. Two days later, he has a heart attack and is told by the doctor that he must change his lifestyle drastically. He has not prepared for any of that.
Jesus asked the rich fool, "And the things you have prepared for, whose will they be?" Are we prepared to deal with that question?
28. Walking in Our Shoes
Illustration
John Claypool
When I was a very young minister and had not yet myself been initiated into the fraternity of grief, I remember being called once to minister to an old farm widow. Her husband had just died, and I went with all my earnest intent to be as much comfort as I could to her, but I had never lost a significant person in my life. Most of my knowledge of grief was abstract and academic, and so I went and said the best words I knew to say. I tried to convey my care, but while I was doing that, there came into the room where we were another older woman about this widow's age. She walked across and without hardly a word, she embraced the grieving person and all she said was, "I understand, my dear. I understand."
Someone told me later that this second person had just lost her husband six months before and, therefore, she came out of a shared understanding of what my friend was experiencing. And I could almost see the bridges of understanding coming to exist between them. That woman who had shared the same experience as my grieving friend had a way of connecting, had a way of making clear that she understood, that I was not able to because I had not walked in her shoes.
Let me suggest that if God, in fact, has come to this earth to live as we have to live, if God has experienced life the way we have to experience it, then it means that we can believe that God understands, that none of our experiences are strange to the Holy One, because God has chosen to share the human condition with us. There is no longer a remote sense that God is above and outside us, but there is this incredible sense that God understands from within what it's like to be a human being, to struggle as we have to struggle and, therefore, can give us grace to help in our times of trouble.
29. Prepare the Way - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
His name was John. People knew him locally as the Baptist. Some would say of him that he was a religious eccentric. Others less kind would dismiss him as being simply a flake. He definitely did not seem to be the kind of "How to win friends and influence people" type of personality to usher in the news of the Messiah's coming. He just somehow doesn't seem to fit in with shepherds and wise men and the other characters that we traditionally associate with the Christmas story. Yet, this was God's unlikely servant chosen to herald the spectacular events that would soon follow. A most unlikely promotions man to be sure, but God's man nevertheless.
From the very beginning everything about John was unique. His mother Elizabeth was related to Mary, the mother of Jesus. Elizabeth conceived six months before Mary. But Mary happened to be a very young girl, indeed almost a child. Most scholars put her probable age at thirteen. It was not unusual for a girl in that day and time to be of childbearing age at such a tender age. Indeed, it is not unheard of even in cotemporary America.
Elizabeth, on the other hand, was a woman who was in the golden years of her life. She had never given birth to a child. You would think of her more in the category of great grandmother than mother. Yet, she and her aging priest of a husband were the unlikely candidates. It's not out of the question today with recent advances in medicine, but beg the grandmother's here today, don't take this as a word from the Lord!
And then there was John himself. Being the same age as Jesus they grow up together, played together, yet as they reached adulthood they were different in so many ways. When John began his ministry he lived in the desert solitude of Judea, a rugged desert wilderness. He fed on honey and wild locust and dressed in garments of camel hair. He constantly brooded over the scriptures, especially the prophetic ministry of Elijah, after whom he modeled his own ministry.
Nor was John a respecter of persons or rank. He had an intimidating personality. For that reason the upper class folk rejected both he and his message. You can read about that in Luke 7:29.
Yet, John gathered a respectable following. He attracted many hearers among the lower class, many of whom received baptism by his hands. John even drew a group of disciples around him, which is significant for two reasons. First, some of these disciples later became disciples of our Lord. Secondly, a number of people began to think of John himself as being the long expected Messiah. For that reason John's gospel felt obliged to specifically point out "There was a man sent from God whose name was John, He came for testimony to bear witness to the light that all might believe through him. He was not the light, but he came to bear witness to the light.
What drew people to John and his message? Well, John was far-fetched. His austere life style was a compelling reason to listen to him and perhaps his strange ways convinced some people to follow him. I think many thought he was Elijah the prophet who returned. But there was more to John than simply a bizarre strange life. John understood that God was about to do something that would shake the foundations of the earth and he needed to prepare the way for that event. He did this in basically three ways.
1. John lived a godly life.
2. John challenged the people's sins.
3. John pointed the way to Christ.
30. An English Grammar Reminder
Illustration
Brett Blair
I want you to reach back into your Junior High school experience and remember something your Englishteacher taught you. For some of you that's going to be quite a stretch. For others not so much. You know who you are.
The concept I want you to pull up into your memory banks is the concept of a metaphor. A metaphor is a figure of speech in the English language where you use something totally unrelated to a particular idea, to describe that idea. Usually metaphors capture our attention, because in a few words, they accurately describe our emotions or the facts of a situation.
Let me give you some examples:
- That person is about as nervous as a long-tailed cat in a room full of rocking chairs.
- I feel about as helpless as a trombone player in a phone booth.
- You can't tell how much gas is in the tank by how loud the horn honks!
- Going to church doesn't make you a Christian, any more than going to McDonald's makes you a Big Mac.
But my all time favorite comes from the old TV program, "Cheers."Norm walked into the bar, and Sam the bartender asked him, "How's it going, Norm?" And Norm answered, "It's a dog eat dog world out there, Sammy and I'm wearing Milk Bone underwear."
Then there are metaphors that use contrast to emphasize truth:
- Like the football player that stands 6'5" tall and weighs 300 pounds. His nickname is "Tiny"
- In the old Three Stooges comedies, the one guy who had no hair was called, "Curley".
I think you get the idea. Metaphors paint vivid pictures for us through word pictures or contrast in order to emphasize the truth about something.
Well, in the parable we're going to look at this morning, Jesus uses two metaphors to teach us something about God. And He uses both kinds of metaphors that I've just described, to do that. In this Parable of The Persistent Widow, he uses contrast to teach us about the character of God, that's the part about the judge, and he uses comparison to teach us about justice and prayer, that's the part about the persistent widow.
31. Jerry's Faith
Illustration
John E. Sumwalt
In the Lutheran parochial school I attended as a child I was taught to fear God, and that I risked punishment for sin. When I was 17 years old, my younger sister died of a brain tumor, and I began to question everything that I had been taught. I could not understand how God could allow this. Her death left me confused and angry. I became more of a doubter than a believer. I came to the conclusion that I could only believe in myself. I pushed myself, I worked hard; I became an over-achiever and eventually a workaholic. This program propelled me to financial success, but it was accompanied by personal failure. I learned that the love of money can bring financial gains that are accompanied by personal loss.
I became an empty person. I couldn't stand success and began to self-destruct. I lost everything, my friends, those who had pretended to be my friends and my family. It was all like an unbelievable soap opera -- and before it was over I learned quite a bit about the judicial system, the Mafia, extortion and revenge. There were times when I feared for my life and for the lives of the members of my family. It was the kind of situation that causes one to think about taking his own life.
But I wasn't ready for that option. The love I had for my children gave me courage and made me determined to try again. I wanted to be a believer in something bigger than myself, but it was difficult. It would take a miracle. I carefully planned a comeback. I wanted to be successful again and not make some of the same mistakes. The task seemed monumental.
In the process I met an independent preacher named Andy. He worked for me on a part-time basis and we soon became friends. He wasn't pushy with his religion, so I decided to go to one of his church services on a Wednesday night. It was quite unusual to say the least. Wednesday night was testimony night. The opening song service was quite an experience. The songs had beautiful melodies and were easy to sing. When they sang songs like "He Touched Me" and "O, How I Love Jesus," I noticed that many had tears in their eyes as they sang with great feeling. I felt touched by this, and quite uncomfortable. The testimonies that followed were as impressive to me as the song service. People spoke about what God had done for them, how God answered prayer and healed them. Was this real? Do they know a different God than I do, I wondered? It was all so confusing.
I didn't know if I could believe it, but I went back to observe more. I knew these people had something I didn't have. I guess it was a simple faith in God. It seemed like a good way to live, but I still wondered if it was real. If there was no God, I think we would have to invent one to keep our sanity. I tried to keep an open mind on the subject. I found myself reading the Bible because I was hungry for truth.
One Saturday night my mother called to tell me that my grandmother was gravely ill. I needed strength to face this so I went to church the next morning before going to the hospital to see her. That morning Andy spoke of the healing power of Jesus. I cornered him after church and said, "Andy, are you sure he heals today?" He was sure. I marked several of the healing promises in my Bible and then I went to the hospital. As I entered the waiting room, I saw that many of my relatives were there to pay their last visit to Grandma. The pastor of her church was about to get on the elevator after praying with her. I stopped him for a brief talk. I said, "Don't you believe God has the ability to heal people?" He assured me he believed that God does have the power to heal, but he added that we all have a time to die. I knew he was right, but a voice in the back of my mind said, "Prove me and know that I am God."
I followed my cousin and his wife into Grandma's room in the intensive care unit. When I spoke to Grandma she regained consciousness, and her smile told me that she was pleased to see her oldest grandson. I got right to the point. "Grandma, do you want me to pray that God will heal you?" She agreed. The four of us held hands and I prayed for her healing. It was a special moment. The nurses and other members of the hospital staff who were present stood with tears in their eyes. When I finished I had a feeling that Grandma was healed. My cousin's wife knew it, also. Grandma fell into a deep sleep. When we went out to the waiting room, my relatives were talking about Grandma being ready to pass away. The doctor had told them that she would not live through the day. I said, "Grandma is not going to die today. She is healed." I went home and then back to the church for the Sunday evening service.
On Monday morning my mother called to tell me that Grandma had made a complete recovery. I said, "What did the doctor have to say about this recovery?" She answered, "He said it was a miracle." I believe God knew just what I needed. I had the audacity to take God at his word, and God cared enough not to let me make a fool of myself.
Author's Note: Gerald Wagner shared this story of his grandmother's healing with a new member class in our church in the Spring of 1990. It is printed here in his own words. Mr. Wagner, an independent semi-truck driver, lives in Kenissha, Wisconsin.
32. Oranges In Your Pocket
Illustration
While crossing the Atlantic on an ocean liner, F.B. Meyer was asked to address the first class passengers. At the captain's request, he spoke on "Answered Prayer." An agnostic who was present at the service was asked by his friends, "What did you think of Dr. Meyer's sermon?" He answered, "I didn't believe a word of it." That afternoon Meyer went to speak to the steerage passengers. Many of the listeners at his morning address went along, including the agnostic, who claimed he just wanted to hear "what the babbler had to say."
Before going tothe service, the agnostic put two oranges in his pocket. On his way, he passed an elderly woman sitting in her deck chair fast asleep. Her hands were open. In the spirit of fun, the agnostic put the two oranges in her outstretched palms. After the meeting, he saw the old lady happily eating one of the pieces of fruit. "You seem to be enjoying that orange," he remarked with a smile. "Yes, sir," she replied, "My Father is very good to me." "Your father? Surely your father can't be still alive!" "Praise God," she replied, "He is very much alive." "What do you mean?" pressed the agnostic. She explained, "I'll tell you, sir. I have been seasick for days. I was asking God somehow to send me an orange. I suppose I fell asleep while I was praying. When I awoke, I found He had not only sent me one orange but two!" The agnostic was speechless. Later he was converted to Christ. Yes, praying in God's will brings an answer.
33. Humility
Illustration
Billy D. Strayhorn
A preacherdied and went to heaven. This preacher was known as one of the best preachers around. Thousands of people had come to Christ because of his sermons. And he knew it.
As St. Peter was showing him around, they passed through ahuge section of humongous homes. These homeswere so big, they were nearly castles. Either outside the house or looking out of the window of each of the houseswas a little widow lady, awidower, a teenager, or a child. And they all looked overwhelmed by the size of their mansion.
The preacher was getting excited. Ifthese people, just yourordinary everyday kind of Christians got thesekind of mansions,imagine what he was going to get. As they ended their trek through the neighborhood, they came upon a large Texas style ranch house. It was gorgeous, but wasn't huge. It had everything you could imagine, but it was nowhere near what he was expecting. So he asked why?
St. Peter sort of grinned and said: "Oh, we appreciate everything you did. You're a great preacher, and thousands upon thousands came to Christ because of you. But truthfully, you were just the distraction. The real work, the tough work, was done on the knees of every one of those people we passed. They were our prayer warriors. And that's where the real battle was fought."
Prayer brings us into the very presence of God. Through prayer, we are brought to the throne of grace and we are enabled to stand before God --not presumptuously but in all humility and because we've been invited there.
34. Trouble, but No Sleepless Nights
Illustration
Bill Bouknight
The late Bishop Ernest Fitzgerald used to tell about a man he knew years ago who lived in one of the isolated corners of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Life was hard, and every day his little hillside farm was at the mercy of drought, wind, or cold. Yet he was about the most serene and deeply contented man Bishop Fitzgerald had ever known. So he asked the old mountaineer one day if he had ever had any troubles and if he had ever spent sleepless nights. "Sure, I've had my troubles," he said, "but no sleepless nights. When I go to bed I say, 'Lord, you have to sit up all night anyway. There's no point in both of us losing sleep. You look after things tonight and when tomorrow comes, I'll do the best I can to help you.'"
35. Treasure Waiting to Be Discovered
Illustration
King Duncan
Anthony De Mello tells a story about some people who were on a raft off the coast of Brazil. They were perishing from thirst, for as you know, ocean water is undrinkable. What they did not know, however, was that the water they were floating on was fresh water. A nearby river was coming out into the sea with such force that it went out for a couple of miles, so they had fresh water right there where they were. But they had no idea. "In the same way," says De Mello, "we're surrounded with joy, with happiness, with love. Most people," he concludes, "have no idea."
And that's true. There are a lot of hurting, shattered people in this world for whom help is at hand if they only knew it. The treasure is just waiting to be discovered.
36. Not Always A Saint
Illustration
Brett Blair
One of the greatest voices of the church was St. Augustine. He lived between the 4th and 5th centuries in Rome and was a Bishop. After Rome fell and faded into dust it was largely Augustine's writings that kept Christianity alive and made it the most influential movement the world had ever known. It is remarkable that between the 8th and 12th centuries his writings were more widely read than any other. And that was 400 to 700 years after his death.
But he was not always a saint. Before he was converted at age 29 he lived to fulfill every lust and pleasure. But Augustine had one great quality that saved his pitiful life—a praying mother. She never gave up on him until one day he stopped long enough to listen to the voices around him. Augustine had just heard a sermon by Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan.
We are told in public speaking and preaching classes not to read long quotes but I'm going to do it anyway and read something that Augustine wrote. These two paragraphs shaped the hearts and minds of hundreds of thousands of people throughout history. He is looking back on his conversion to Christianity and the convictions of his heart. Here's the quote:
"One day, under deep conviction: I cast myself down I know not how, under a certain fig-tree, giving full vent to my tears; and the floods of mine eyes gushed out…So was I weeping in the most bitter contrition of my heart, when, lo! I heard from a neighboring house a voice, as of boy or girl, I know not, chanting and oft repeating, "Take up and read; Take up and read." Instantly, my countenance altered, I began to think most intently whether children were wont in any kind of play to sing such words; nor could I remember ever to have heard the like.
So checking the torrent of my tears, I arose; interpreting it to be no other than a command from God to open the book, and read the first chapter I should find... Eagerly then I returned to the place where Alypius (his friend) was sitting; for there had I laid the volume of the Apostle. I seized, opened, and in silence read that section on which my eyes first fell: ‘Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying; but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh...' No further would I read; nor needed I for instantly at the end of this sentence, by a light as it were of serenity infused into my heart, all the darkness of doubt vanished away."
37. Temptation: Don't Swim In the Canal
Illustration
Charles Swindoll
Some people fall into temptation, but a great many make plans for disaster ahead of time.
"Son," ordered a father, "Don't swim in that canal."
"OK, Dad," he answered. But he came home carrying a wet bathing suit that evening.
"Where have you been?" demanded the father.
"Swimming in the canal," answered the boy. "Didn't I tell you not to swim there?" asked the father.
"Yes, Sir," answered the boy.
"Why did you?" he asked.
"Well, Dad," he explained, "I had my bathing suit with me and I couldn't resist the temptation."
"Why did you take your bathing suit with you?" he questioned.
"So I'd be prepared to swim, in case I was tempted," he replied.
Too many of us expect to sin and excite sin. The remedy for such dangerous action is found in Romans 13:14, "But put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for the flesh, to fulfill the lusts thereof." Whenever we play with temptation, it is easy to drift into great danger. A woman was bathing in the Gulf of Mexico. She was enjoying the comfort of relaxing on an inflated cushion that kept her afloat. When she realized that she had been swept about a half mile out from the beach, she began to scream, but no one heard her. A coast guard craft found her five miles from the place where she first entered the water. She did not see her danger until she was beyond her own strength and ability.
38. A Little Effort
Illustration
Brett Blair
Apathy is the opposite of Faith: Some years ago in South America, a crew of Peruvian Sailors, headed up the Amazon river came upon a strange sight. It was like a scene from "The Twilight Zone." A Spanish ship was anchored off the coast and all the sailors were stretched out weakly on the deck of the ship. As the Peruvians drew closer, they saw that the Spaniards were in terrible physical condition. They looked the picture of death itself, their lips parched and swollen. They were literally dying of thirst.
"Can we help you?" shouted the Peruvians.
The Spaniards cried out, "Water! Water! We need fresh water!"
The Peruvian sailors, surprised at this request, told them to lower their buckets and help themselves.
The Spaniards, fearing they'd been misunderstood cried back, "No, no we need FRESH water!
But they received the same reply form the Peruvians to lower their buckets and help themselves. They finally did lower their buckets into the ocean waters and when they brought the buckets on deck they discovered to their amazement fresh water. They had quit trying. There at the mouth of the Amazon river, anchored for days, too far from land to see the coast, but not too far from the mouth of the River, they had fresh water in abundance.
Apathy had over taken them and they had quit. They were resigned to die when all that was needed was to lower their bucket. A small effort would have made all the difference.
39. So Close Yet So Far
Illustration
J.M. Boice
Driving up from Beersheba, a combined force of British, Australians and New Zealanders were pressing on the rear of the Turkish retreat over arid desert. The attack outdistanced its water carrying camel train. Water bottles were empty. The sun blazed pitilessly out of a sky where the vultures wheeled expectantly.
"Our heads ached," writes Gilbert, "and our eyes became bloodshot and dim in the blinding glare...Our tongues began to swell...Our lips turned a purplish black and burst." Those who dropped out of the column were never seen again, but the desperate force battled on to Sheria. There were wells at Sheria, and had they been unable to take the place by nightfall, thousands were doomed to die of thirst. "We fought that day," writes Gilbert, "as men fight for their lives... We entered Sheria station on the heels of the retreating Turks. The first objects which met our view were the great stone cisterns full of cold, clear, drinking water. In the still night air the sound of water running into the tanks could be distinctly heard, maddening in its nearness; yet not a man murmured when orders were given for the battalions to fall in, two deep, facing the cisterns."
He then describes the stern priorities: the wounded, those on guard duty, then company by company. It took four hours before the last man had his drink of water, and in all that time they had been standing twenty feet from a low stone wall on the other side of which were thousands of gallons of water.
(From an account of the British liberation of Palestine by Major V. Gilbert in The Last Crusade)
40. A Song in the Night
Illustration
During the Thirty Years' War in the 17th century, German pastor Paul Gerhardt and his family were forced to flee from their home. One night as they stayed in a small village inn, homeless and afraid, his wife broke down and cried openly in despair. To comfort her, Gerhardt reminded her of Scripture promises about God's provision and keeping. Then, going out to the garden to be alone, he too broke down and wept. He felt he had come to his darkest hour.
Soon afterward, Gerhardt felt the burden lifted and sensed anew the Lord's presence. Taking his pen, he wrote a hymn that has brought comfort to many.
"Give to the winds thy fears;
hope, and be undismayed;
God hears thy sighs and counts thy tears;
God shall lift up thy head.
Through waves and clouds and storms
He gently clears the way.
Wait thou His time, so shall the night
soon end in joyous day."
It is often in our darkest times that God makes His presence known most clearly. He uses our sufferings and troubles to show us that He is our only source of strength. And when we see this truth, like Pastor Gerhardt, we receive new hope. Are you facing a great trial? Take heart. Put yourself in God's hands. Wait for His timing. He will give you a "song in the night."
41. Who Do You Say I Am? - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
Jesus and his disciples ventured into the District of Caesarea Philippi, an area about 25 miles northeast of the Sea of Galilee. The region had tremendous religious implications. The place was littered with the temples of the Syrian gods. Here also was the elaborate marble temple that had been erected by Herod the Great, father of the then ruling Herod Antipas. Here also was the influence of the Greek gods. Here also the worship of Caesar as a God himself. You might say that the world religions were on display in this town. It was with this scene in the background that Jesus chose to ask the most crucial questions of his ministry.
He looked at his disciples and in a moment of reflection said: "Who do men say that I am?" The disciples begin sharing with Jesus what they have heard from the people who have been following Jesus: Some say that you are Elijah; others say John the Baptist, still others Jeremiah or one of the prophets. It's always been this way, Jesus as seen by the masses is seen in so many different ways.
You can speak of Jesus as prophet, holy man, teacher, or spiritual leader, and few will object. But speak of Him as Son of God, divine, of the same nature as the Father, and people will line up to express their disapproval.
A billion Muslims will say: "Prophet, yes. God, no!" Jews scattered around the world will say: "Teacher, yes. Messiah, no!" Liberal Protestants and religionists of various stripes will say: "Exemplary man, yes. Divine, no!" Who do people say he is? Who do you say he is? And what are we called to do? Let's take a look at the answers to these three question:
1. Who do men say that I am?
2. Who do you say that I am?
3. What is the church called to do?
42. Joseph’s Kid?
Illustration
Scott Hoezee
Based on verse 22, it appears there was immediately a double-reaction: some were amazed and part of their amazement at his "gracious" speech gets expressed in the line "Isn't this Joseph's son?" But that question seems to cut two ways, and Jesus' subsequent words indicate his awareness of this. The question "Isn't this Joseph's son" CAN be a source of genuine wonder and appreciation—look how far our local boy has come! But it's not difficult to see that the same question could be asked with a real edge to it, with a sneer, with derision. "Joseph's kid? Good grief. He was a nobody back in the day and he's a nobody from a no-account family now. Forget him!"
Jesus then goes on to suggest that maybe those very detractors in the crowd that day would be asking him shortly for an authenticating sign. Although we have not as of yet been told directly by Luke of any particular work Jesus didin Capernaum, apparently he's been there and done some amazing things. But Jesus is no trained dog or dancing bear and he makes clear he's not going to do any such thing in Nazareth. Worse, he inflames people still more by saying that with the attitudes some were harboring in their hearts at that very moment, the Nazareth populace was not worthy of a divine working. Instead, as in the f*ckless, sub-spiritual days of Elijah and Elisha, God would work his wonders elsewhere, outside Israel.
43. In Focus
Illustration
Henry Bosch
On the back of a pulpit in one church were printed these words: “Sir, we would see Jesus!” They were a reminder to the minister that he must never allow anything--no matter how good or interesting--to distract him from focusing on the Savior.
Peter, James, and John needed this reminder too when they witnessed Jesus’ transfiguration and the appearance of Moses and Elijah. Commenting on this account, J. B. Nicholson suggests that when Peter said, “Lord, it is good for us,” he was focusing on the wonderful experience. Nicholson then says, “Peter was sidetracked, and the Father had to open heaven and speak to him. He said, ‘This is My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased; hear Him.’” God put the focus where it belonged, on Christ.
Sin diverts some believers from focusing on Jesus. Too much study and feverish activity distracts others. Such things as doctrines and church attendance, good as they are, must not become our main concerns. We are to keep Jesus at the center of our spiritual attention.
Is the Lord Jesus Christ the primary object of your love and devotion?
44. It's In Your Hands
Illustration
Max Lucado
Jungle Aviation and Radio Service (JAARS), the flying department of Wycliffe Bible Translators had flown thousands of hours over a 25 year span without one fatal accident before April 7, 1972. On that day, a Piper Aztec lost its right engine and crashed in Papua New Guinea, killing all seven persons aboard. The Aztec had just rolled out of the Wycliffe maintenance hangar the day before following a 100 hour inspection. The chief mechanic was stunned when he heard the news of the crash. Reviewing in his mind each step he had performed in inspecting that right engine, he suddenly recoiled in horror. He remembered that he had been interrupted while tightening a fuel line and had never returned to finish the job! That faulty connection had allowed raw fuel to spray out and catch fire while the Aztec was in flight.
The mechanic's guilt at being responsible for the deaths of his companions crushed him. For days he did not know what to do. The other mechanics tried to help him, as did his own family. But when the family of Doug Hunt, the pilot who was killed in the accident, was preparing to return to their home in New Zealand, the mechanic knew he had to see them, talk with them and beg their forgiveness. He could barely get out the words as he sobbed in their presence. "That hand there," he said, looking at his own right hand, "took Doug's life." Glennis Hunt, Doug's widow, embraced him. "Glennis sat by me and held the hand that took her husband's life," he later wrote, "and another JAARS pilot sat on my other side with a demonstration of love, comfort, and forgiveness. That was the most significant first step in the healing process."
45. The Crucial Word
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
Dwight Moody's father died when Dwight was only four. A month later Mrs. Moody gave birth to twins; she now had nine mouths to feed and no income. Merciless creditors dogged the widow, claiming everything they could get their hands on.
As if Mrs. Moody didn't have enough troubles, her eldest boy later ran away from home. Certain that her son would return, Mrs. Moody placed a light for him in the window each night. Young Dwight was inspired by her faith and prayers. He wrote: "I can remember how eagerly she used to look for tidings of that boy; how she used to send us to the post office to see if there was a letter from him ... some night when the wind was very high, and the house would tremble at every gust, the voice of my mother was raised in prayer for that wanderer."
Her prayers were answered. Her prodigal son did eventually return. Dwight remembered: "While my mother was sitting at the door, a stranger was seen coming toward the house, and when he came to the door he stopped. My mother didn't know her boy. He stood there with folded arms and a great beard flowing down his breast, his tears trickling down his face. When my mother saw those tears she cried, 'Oh, it's my lost son!' and entreated him to come in. But he stood still! 'No mother,' he answered, 'I will not come in until I hear first that you have forgiven me."'
Mrs. Moody was only too willing to forgive. She rushed to the door, threw her arms around him, and there the prodigal found forgiveness.
46. Pursued by the Atoning Love
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
One evening a woman was driving home when she noticed a huge truck behind her that was driving uncomfortably close. She stepped on the gas to gain some distance from the truck, but when she sped up the truck did too. The faster she drove, the faster drove the truck.
Now scared, she exited the freeway. But the truck stayed with her. The woman then turned up a main street, hoping to lose her pursuer in traffic. But the truck ran a red light and continued the chase.
Reaching the point of panic, the woman whipped her car into a service station and bolted out of her auto screaming for help. The truck driver sprang from his truck and ran toward her car. Yanking the back door open, the driver pulled out a man hidden in the backseat.
The woman was running from the wrong person. From his high vantage point, the truck driver had spotted a would-be rapist in the woman's car. The chase was not his effort to harm her but to save her even at the cost of his own safety.
Likewise, many people run from God's provision of atonement on the cross, fearing what He might do to them. But His plans are for good not evil—to rescue us from the hidden sins that endanger our lives.
47. He Set His Face
Illustration
Richard A. Jensen
He had just finished feeding the 5,000 men plus women and children when he asked them the question (Luke 9:10-17). In this context of feeding people (cf. Luke 24:28-35) Jesus asked his disciples, "Who do the crowds say that I am?" (Luke 9:18). We stand here at a turning point in Luke's story of Jesus. In earlier stories of Jesus' baptism, genealogy, temptation and a sabbath in his hometown synagogue Luke has given us all kinds of clues as to the identity of Jesus. After that there comes action. Jesus healed people. He forgave sinners. He called disciples. He challenged sabbath laws and so on. It's time now to return to the question of identity. Do even the disciples understand who this man is? Does anyone really understand?
The disciples answered Jesus question by stating the opinions of some in the crowds. Jesus' then zeroes in on the disciples themselves. "But who do you say that I am?" (Luke 9:20). "The Messiah of God," Peter answered.
And then Jesus did a surprising thing. He acknowledged that Peter had the right answer to his question. But he told the disciples not to tell anyone the truth of his identity. The coming of the Messiah would move Israel from one degree of glory to another. But Jesus was not to be this Messiah of glory. Jesus was to be a Messiah on a cross. Jesus tells it straight in a new revelation of his identity. "The Son of Man must undergo great suffering, and be rejected by the elders, chief priests, and scribes, and be killed and on the third day be raised" (Luke 9:22).
The disciples must have been stunned. They had glory on their minds, too. But, no, the way of this Messiah was to be a way of suffering for him and for the disciples. "If any want to become my followers, let them deny themselves and take up their cross daily and follow me" (Luke 9:23). The disciples never could get this through their heads. In the story of the transfiguration which Luke tells next we hear Jesus discussing the departure he would accomplish in Jerusalem. Jesus, that is, was discussing with Moses and Elijah his way to Jerusalem, his way to the cross. And the disciples? They wanted to build booths and live on this mountain of glory and transfiguration forever. They did not know what they were saying, Luke tells us.
This hardness of heart of the disciples appears again when they all come down from the Mount of Transfiguration. A man comes to Jesus in order that Jesus might heal his son who is possessed by a demon. "I begged your disciples to cast it out, but they could not," the father says to Jesus. Jesus proceeds to wonder aloud about the faithless disciples. He tells them again, therefore, of his mission. "Let these words sink into your ears," he tells them, "The Son of Man is going to be betrayed into human hands." Sadly Luke tells us of the disciples that, "... they did not understand this saying; its meaning was concealed from them, so they could not perceive it" (Luke 9:44-45). The disciples prove the truth of this statement by turning to a discussion among themselves about which one of them was the greatest. They're still thinking of glory!
Jesus has revealed that he must go to Jerusalem to suffer, to die and to be raised again. The disciples don't get it at all. With his heart heavy with the suffering that lay ahead, therefore, and with his mind puzzled by disciples who failed to understand, Jesus set his face to go to Jerusalem.
48. Which Color Would You Be?
Illustration
Richard J. Fairchild
Ralph Milton tells of the teacher who, for reasons of her own, asked the kids one day, "If all the bad children were painted red and all the good children were painted green, which color would you be?"
Think about it. What color would you be? Red or Green? It is a tough question isn't it when you pose only two options.
One very wise child answered the teacher: "Striped"
It seems to me that in the frame of the story - everyone but Jesus is striped. It is the same in the world today. We are a curious combination of the lost and the found. We are striped. We are, in some sense, not completely complete. It is hard language, this language of lost and found, especially for folks in the middle, as most of us are most of the time. It seems too absolute.
Rarely are we completely lost. And rarely are we completely found. There is always a part of us that needs to be dragged and cajoled into the light, and there is always a part of us that is already there in the light. For some it is more and for some it is less, but always some part.
The wonderful thing is - that God wants us to enter fully into the light. The wonderful thing is that God wants to bless us all richly to keep us safe, to make us strong, to help us be like a Shepherd who really cares for his sheep, or like a poor widow who really values all her coins.
49. Just a Shadow
Illustration
Donald Grey Barnhouse
A widow was driving with the children to his wife's funeral where he was to preach the sermon. As they came into one small town there strode down in front of them a truck that came to stop before a red light. It was the biggest truck the man had ever seen in his life, and the sun was shining on it at just the right angle that took its shadow and spread it across the snow on the field beside it.
As the shadow covered that field, he said, "Look children at that truck, and look at its shadow. If you had to be run over, which would you rather be run over by? Would you rather be run over by the truck or by the shadow?"
The youngest child said, "The shadow couldn't hurt anybody."
"That's right," the man continued, "and death is a truck, but the shadow is all that ever touches the Christian. The truck ran over the Lord Jesus. Only the shadow is gone over mother."
50. Jonah Proof
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Many people find it difficult to take the Book of Jonah seriously because they find it hard to believe that a man could be swallowed by a whale and live to tell the story. The following account of a modern-day man who underwent a similar experience and did live to tell his story may be of help. The following account is taken from the Princeton Theological Review, Vol. 25, 1927, p. 636:
In February 1891, the whaling ship Star of the East was in the vicinity of the Falkland Islands and the lookout sighted a large sperm whale three miles away. Two boats were launched and in a short time one of the harpooners was enabled to spear the fish. The second boat attacked the whale, but was upset by a lash of its tail and the men thrown into the sea, one man being drowned, and another, James Bartley, having disappeared, could not be found. The whale was killed and in a few hours was lying by the ship’s side and the crew were busy with axes and spades removing the blubber. They worked all day and part of the night. Next morning, they attached some tackle to the stomach which was hoisted on the deck. The sailors were startled by something in it which gave spasmodic signs of life, and inside was found the missing sailor doubled up and unconscious. He was laid on the deck and treated to a bath of sea water which soon revived him.… He remained two weeks a raving lunatic.… At the end of the third week he had entirely recovered from the shock and resumed his duties.
Bartley affirms that he would probably have lived inside his house of flesh until he starved, for he lost his senses through fright and not from lack of air. He remembers the sensation of being thrown out of the boat into the sea.… He was then encompassed by a great darkness and he felt he was slipping along a smooth passage of some sort that seemed to move and carry him forward. The sensation lasted but a short time and then he realized he had more room. He felt about him and his hands came in contact with a yielding, slimy substance that seemed to shrink from his touch. It finally dawned upon him that he had been swallowed by the whale.… He could easily breathe, but the heat was terrible. It was not a scorching, stifling nature, but it seemed to open the pores of his skin and draw out his vitality.… His skin was exposed to the action of the gastric juice … face, neck and hands were bleached to a deadly whiteness and took on the appearance of parchment … (and) never recovered its natural appearance … (though otherwise) his health did not seem affected by his terrible experience.
Note: Though the PTR did run this articlethe widow of the captain of the whaling ship later claimed the story was false (see Allen, L. C. (1976) The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah and Micah, New International Commentary on the Old Testament. See, Neue Lutheranische Kirchenzeitung (1895), p.303 and A. J Wilson (1927) Princeton Theological Review, p.636, respectively.
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